Industrial Instrumentation and Process Control

CONTROL SYSTEM INSTRUMENTATION

CONTROL SYSTEM INSTRUMENTATION

Having considered PID controllers, we now

consider the other components of the feedback
control loop. Consider the stirred-tank heating
system:
CONTROL SYSTEM INSTRUMENTATION
A thermocouple measures the liquid temperature
and converts it to millivolt-level electrical signal.

This signal is then amplified to a voltage level and

transmitted to the electronic controller.

The feedback controller performs the control

calculations and sends the calculations and sends
the calculated value as an output signal to the
final control element, an electrical heater that
adjusts the rate of heat transfer to the liquid.
 This example illustrates three important
functions of a feedback control loop:

1)measurement of the controlled variable;

2)adjustment of the manipulated variable;
3)signal transmission between components.
 The interconnection between the
process and the controller can be
considered to be an interface
(analog or digital). The
interconnection is required for a
single controller or for a number of
controllers in a computer control
system. In each case, the interface
consists of all measurement,
manipulation, and transmission
elements.
SENSORS, TRANSMITTERS, AND
TRANSDUCERS
 INTRODUCTION
The operation of complex industrial plants would be difficult, if
not impossible, without the measurement and control of critical
process variables.
Large plants typically have hundreds or thousands of process
variables that are repetitively measured online every few
seconds or minutes.
In addition, important product properties are measured in
quality control labs less frequently e.g. once per hour, once
an eight hour shift, or daily.
Consequently, the design and maintenance of accurate,
reliable measurement system is a critical aspect of process
control.

The lack of a reliable, cost-effective on-line sensor can be a key

limitation on the effectiveness of a process control system.
 SENSORS AND TRANSMITTERS
A physical variable is measured by a sensor which produces a
physical response (e.g. electrical or mechanical) that is related
to the value of the process variable.

For example in the stirred tank heating system, the

thermocouple generates a millivolt electrical signal that
increases as the temperature increases. However for this
temperature measurement to be used in the control
calculations, the millivolt-level signal must be converted to an
appropriate voltage or current signal in a standard input range
for the controller.

This conversion is done by a transmitter.

In process control literature, the terms sensor, transmitter, and

sensor-transmitter, are used more or less interchangeably.
 TRANSDUCERS
It is often necessary to convert an instrumentation
signal from one form to another. A device that
performs this conversion is referred to as a
transducer.

One common application is when the controller

output signal is a current signal and the final control
element is a pneumatic control valve. The required
conversion is performed by a current-to-pressure
(I/P) transducer. Voltage to pressure (E/P) are also
quite common.
STANDARD INSTRUMENTATION SIGNAL LEVELS

Before 1960, instrumentation in the process

industries utilized pneumatic (air pressure) signals
to transmit measurement and control information
almost exclusively. These devices make use of
mechanical force-balance elements to generate
signals in the range of 3 to 15 psig, an industry
standard.

Since about 1960, electronic instrumentation has

become predominant. The standard signal ranges
for analog instruments are 4 to 20mA and 1 to 5
V, direct current (VDC).
SENSORS SELECTION CRITERIA
The selection of a measurement device should
consider the following factors:
1.Measurement range (span). The required
measurement for the process variable must lie
entirely with the instruments range of
performance.

2.Performance. Depending on the application,

accuracy, repeatability, or some other measure of
performance is appropriate. For closed-loop
control, speed of response is also important.
3.Reliability. Manufacturers provide baseline
conditions. Previous experience with the
measurement device is very important.
4.Materials of Construction. The instrument may
need to withstand high temperatures, high
pressures, and corrosive and abrasive
environments. For some applications, seals or
purges may be necessary.
5.Prior Use. For the first installation of a specific
measurement device at a site, training of
maintenance personnel and purchases of spare
parts might be necessary.
6.Potential for releasing process materials to the
environment. Preventing exposure to fugitive emissions
for maintenance personnel is important when the
process fluid is corrosive or toxic. Sterility in
bioprocesses must be maintained.
*If the sensor is not inherently compatible with possible
exposure to hazards, suitable enclosures must be
purchased and included in the installation costs.
7.Electrical classification
8.Invasive or non-invasive. The insertion of a probe
(invasive) can cause fouling, which leads to inaccurate
measurements. Probe location must be selected
carefully to ensure measurement accuracy and
minimize fouling.
TYPICAL SENSORS
SENSORS STATIC AND DYNAMIC
CHARACTERISTICS
The output signal from a sensor-transmitter (or
transmitter) must be compatible with the input
range of the controller that receives the signal.
Transmitters are generally designed to be
direct-acting; that is, the output signal
increases as the measured variable increases.
In addition, most commercial transmitters have
an adjustable input range.
 For example, a temperature transmitter might be adjusted
so that the input range of a platinum resistance element
(the sensor) is 50-150 Oc. In this case, the following
correspondence is obtained:
Input Output
50 OC 4mA
150 OC 20mA

This instrument has a lower limit, or zero, of 50 C and

range, or span, of 150-50 = 100 C.

Note that the transmitter is designed for a specific type of

sensor; hence the zero and span of the overall
sensor/transmitter are adjustable.
 In this example, the
relation between
temperature and
the transmitted
(measured) signal is
linear.

If the sensor power fails, the transmitter output signal has a value of OmA , which would
move the controller output to and final control element to their minimum or maximum values.
If this action could lead to an unsafe condition, the transmitter output signal could be
inverted to give the highest value in operating range.
 For this temperature transmitter, the relation
between the output and input is

The gain of the measurement element Km is

0.16mA/OC. For any linear instrument

Km= output range / span

1. Pressure Transmitter:
Consider a pressure that varies
from 100 to 1000 kPa g.
The output signal (current signal)
varies from 4 to 20 mA.
The range of the transmitter =
100 to 1000 kPa g
 The span of the transmitter =
1000 100 = 900 kPa g
The zero of the transmitter =
low range = 100 kPa g

The gain of the transmitter

20 mA 4 mA = 16 mA .
1000 kPa 100 kPa 900 kPa
 The transmitter has 2 knobs which can
be adjusted to change its span or its
zero.

Consider shifting the zero from 100 to

200 kPa g without changing its span.

The range of the transmitter =

200 1100 kPa
The span = 900 kPa
2. Temperature Transmitter:
Consider a temperature
transmitter accepting a
thermocouple input signals.

Its current output is 4 to 20 mA as the

process temperature changes from
50 to 250 oF.
 The range of the temperature transmitter
= 50 to 250 oF
The span of the transmitter = 200 oF
The zero = 50 oF
The gain of the temperature transmitter
= 20 4 mA = 16 mA
250 50 oF 200 oF
3. Fluid Flow with a P transmitter
orifice plate as a flow transmitter
Consider P over the orifice
plate = 100 in H2O at a process
flowrate of 2000 kg/hr
 P transmitter converts
inches H2O into mA

The gain of the transmitter

= 16 mA .

100 in H2O
 DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SENSOR-
TRANSMITTERS.
Many sensor-transmitters respond quickly to and
have measurement dynamics that are negligible
compared to slower process dynamics.

For other applications where measurement

dynamics are not negligible, significant dynamic
errors can occur (large differences in true values
and measured values)
 Many sensor-transmitters have overdamped
dynamics and exhibit monotonic responses to a
step change in the variable being measured.
Thus it is reasonable to model this type of
measurement dynamics as a first order TF
between the actual value y and the measured
value ym: Ym (s) K m where Km is the gain

Y ( s) ms 1
and m is the measurement time constant.
 Significant measurement dynamics can occur due to poor
sensor location or a long sampling line.

Example, if a pH sensor for a continuous neutralization

process is located in the exit line, a long distance from the
process vessel, a significant delay can arise due to the
distance-velocity lag.

Time delays can also result when an on-line composition

measurement requires a long sample line because of an
expensive analyzer in a protected environment is located a
long distance from the sample location near the process
unit. This common situation can produce a significant
distance velocity-lag.
FINAL CONTROL ELEMENTS
 FINAL CONTROL ELEMENTS

Every process control loop contains a final control

element (or actuator), the device that enables a
process variable to be manipulated. For most
chemical and petroleum processes, the final
control elements (usually control valves) adjust
the flow rates of materials solid, liquid, and gas
feeds and products and indirectly, the rates of
energy transfer to and from the process.
CONTROL VALVES

There are many different ways to manipulate

the flows of material and energy into or out of a
process; for example, the speed of a pump
drive, screw conveyor, or blower can be varied.

However, a simple and widely used method of

accomplishing this result with fluids is the use
of a control valve.
 CONTROL VALVES
The control valve components include the valve body, trim,
seat, and actuator.

Valve body - contains an orifice that allows for the flow of liquids
and/or gases;

Trim/Plug - modulates the flow rate and can be a plug, ball, disk, or
gate;

Seat - consists of protective material (typically metal or soft polymer)

inserted around the orifice to provide a tight shutoff and to increase
the life of the valve when corrosive or solid materials pass through it;

Actuator - provides the force for opening and closing the valve;
OTHER KEY COMPONENTS OF A VALVE
Bonnet is the top portion of the valve body and connects the valve
body to the actuator and can be removed to allow entry into the
valve body; usually contains the packing box that provides a seal
around the sliding stem mechanism that connects the actuator to
the valve plug.

Spring provides the energy to move the valve in the opposite

direction of the diaphragm loading motion; this provision is made so
that the valve can be opened and closed proportionally with the
instrument signal; the spring provides the energy to return the valve
back to its fail-safe condition.

Handwheel is an actuator accessory that is used to manually

override the actuator or to limit its motion; may be located on the top
of the actuator or on its side.
 Control valve key
components
CONTROL VALVES

Control valves are either linear (rising stem /

reciprocating) or rotary in design.
Linear valves usually globe valves that open and
close the valve by moving a plug vertically away from
the orifice and the seat; this movement changes cross
sectional area available for fluid flow.
Rotary valves are closed by a 90o turn of the closing
element (also called quarter-turn valves); these valves
are used both for on off and flow modulating control
valves.
 CONTROL VALVES

Control valves typically utilize some type of

mechanical driver to move the valve plug into and
out of its seat, it can either be:
A DC motor or a stepping motor that screws the valve
stem in and out in much the same way as a hand valve
would be operated.
A pneumatically operated diaphragm device that
moves the stem vertically against the opposing force
of a fixed spring, called a rising stem valve.
CONTROL VALVES

- a pneumatic control valve (air to open)

 CONTROL VALVE FAILURE CONDITIONS
Despite the growing use of motor-driven valves,
most control applications utilize pneumatically
driven control valves of the rising stem type.
Air-to-Open (A-O). As the pneumatic controller
output signal increases, increased pressure on
the diaphragm compresses the spring, thus
pulling the stem out and opening the valve
further. (fail-close)
Air-to-Close (A-C). By reversing either the
plug/seat or the spring/air inlet orientation, the
valve becomes air-to-close. (fail-open)
CONTROL VALVE FAILURE CONDITIONS

Normally the choice of A-O or A-C valve is based

on safety considerations.
The way the valve should operate is chosen
based on the desired response in an
emergency situation (full flow or no flow).
Hence A-C and A-O valves are often referred to
as fail-open (FO) and fail-close(FC) respectively.
 TYPES OF CONTROL VALVES - LINEAR

Globe valves are a family of valves characterized

by a closure member that travels in a line
perpendicular to the valve seat.
They are used primarily for throttling purposes
and general flow control.
They are the most common type of valve used in
the processing industry.
 SINGLE SEATED

Two general areas:

the actuator and the
body
The actuator is the
part of the valve that
converts the energy
input to the valve
mechanical motion to
increase or decrease
the flow restriction.
Body: single-seated
and double-seated
valves, split body
valve
 DOUBLE SEATED
Double-seated valves can
handle high process pressure
with a standard actuator.
However, when tight shut-off is
required, single-seated valves
are generally used.
Double-seated valves tend to
have greater leakage when
closed than single-seated
valves.
 SPLIT BODY

This type of body is

frequently used in
process lines where
frequent changes of
plug and seat are
required because of
corrosion.
 THREE WAY
Can either be diverging
or converging
Consequently, they can
either split one stream
into two other streams
or blend two streams
into only one. They are
sometimes used for
control purposes.
CAGE

have hollow plugs

with internal
passages
 OTHER TYPES OF LINEAR VALVES

Y-style valve - used in molten metal or cryogenic services

Pinch valves or diaphragm valves commonly used for
highly corrosive fluids, slurries and high-viscosity liquids,
as well as in food processing operations (beer and wine)
Gate valve used mainly as a block valve, for fully open
or fully closed services. These are not used as
automatic valves in throttling services.
 TYPES OF CONTROL VALVES - ROTARY
Butterfly valve consist of a disk rotating about a
shaft. This type of valve requires minimum space for
installation and provide high-capacity flow at low cost.

Ball valve commonly used to handle slurries or

fibrous materials. They have low leakage tendency,
are small in size and can also provide high-capacity
flow at low cost.

** There are a great number of valves available to

meet requirements for specialized services as well
as safety and other types of regulation.
 BUTTERFLY
consist of a disk rotating
about a shaft. This type of
valve requires minimum
space for installation and
provide high-capacity flow at
low cost.
 BALL
commonly used to handle
slurries or fibrous
materials. They have low
leakage tendency, are
small in size and can also
provide high-capacity flow
at low cost.
 TYPES OF ACTUATORS
Pneumatically Operated Diaphragm Actuators these are the most
common actuators in the process industries. These actuators
consist of a flexible diaphragm placed between two casings.
One of the chambers resulting from this arrangement must be
made pressure-tight.
The force generated within the actuator is opposed by a range
spring.
The controller air pressure produces a force that is used to
overcome the force of the actuators range spring and the forces
within the valve body.
The action of the valve (FC or FO, is determined by the actuator.

Some valves can also have the action set at the body so that the
stem always moves down. In these, cases the valve is either FC or
FO when the stem moves down.
 TYPES OF ACTUATORS
The size of the actuator depends on the process
pressure against w/c it must move the stem and
on the air pressure available.
The most common air pressure range is 3 to 15
psig but ranges of 6 30 psig and 3 27 psig are
sometimes also used.
These diaphragm actuators are simple in
construction and also dependable and
economical.
 TYPES OF ACTUATORS
Piston Actuators
Piston actuators are normally used
when maximum thrust output is
required along with fast response.
This usually occurs when working
against high process pressure.
These actuators operate using high
air pressure supply, up to 150 psig.
The best designs are double-acting
to give maximum thrust in both
directions.
 TYPES OF ACTUATORS
Electrohydraulic and Electromechanical Actuators
These are becoming more common with the use of electrical
control signals.
They require electric power to the motor and an electric signal
from the controller.
The most common in this family of actuator is probably the
solenoid actuator.
Solenoid valve can be used to actuate a double-acting piston
actuator.
By making or breaking an electric current signal, the solenoid
switches the output of a connected hydraulic pump to either
above or below the actuator piston.
Accurate control of valve position can be obtained with this unit.
Manual-Handwheel Actuators:
Used where automatic control
is not required. They are
available for reciprocating
stem and rotary stem valves.
 CONTROL VALVE ACCESSORIES
Positioner a device that acts very much like a proportional
controller w/ very high gain. Its job is to compare the signal
from the controller with the valve stem position.
If the stem is not where the controller wants it be positioned,
then the positioner adds or exhaust air from the valve until the
correct valve position is obtained. i.e., when it is important to
position the valves stem accurately, a positioner is normally
used.
Use of positioner tends to minimize the effects of :
Lag in large-capacity actuators
Stem friction due to tight stuffing boxes.
Friction due to viscous or gummy fluids
Changes in process line pressure
Hysteresis
Some control loops for w/c positioners are common are
temperature, liquid level, concentration, and gas flow loops.
CONTROL VALVE
ACCESSORIES

Valve with a positioner

CONTROL VALVE ACCESSORIES
Boosters (also called air relays) are used on valve
actuators to speed up the response of the valve to changing
signal from a low-output capacity pneumatic controller or
transducer.
The use of boosters may be the proper choice for fast-responding
control loops where the use of positioners are discouraged.
Possible uses
Amplify a pneumatic signal. Some amplification ratios are 1:2 and 1:3.
Reduce a pneumatic signal. Typical ratios are 5:1, 3:1, and 2:1.
Limit Switches are mounted on the side of the valves and
are triggered by the position of the stem. These switches are
generally used to drive alarms, solenoid valves, lights or
other such devices.
 CONTROL VALVE DYNAMICS

Control valve dynamics tend to be relatively fast

compared to the dynamics of the process itself.
However, the overall behavior of pneumatic
control include non linear behavior (dead band,
hysteresis, backlash, stick-slip phenomena).
Fortunately, their effects can be reduced by
employing valve positioners.
 For purposes of control system analysis using
transfer functions, the dynamic behavior of the
control valve (and the positioner) can be
approximated by a first-order transfer function
Gv(s) between the manipulated variable u(t) and
the signal to the control valve p(t),
U ( s) Kv
Gv ( s)
P( s) vs 1

v << p and p is the largest process time constant

ACCURACY IN INSTRUMENTATION
accuracy and inaccuracy of control is important
accuracy requirements are inherently related to
control system objectives:
ex: a)cooling water flow errors on the order of 10%
(of the measured flow rate might be acceptable in
a control loop regulating the temperature of a
liquid leaving a condenser, as long as the
measurements are simply biased from the true
value by this constant amount
b) On the other hand, errors in the feed flow rate to a
process on the order of 1-2% might be
unacceptable if the inventory calculations must be
made with these data
TERMS USED TO DESCRIBE INSTRUMENTATION
ACCURACY
accuracy designations for control instruments
are often misused
we say that a transmitter has X% accuracy
when we should say that it is X% inaccurate
confusion also exists among the terms
precision, resolution, accuracy, and
repeatability
to make these definitions clear, error should be
defined
 Error is the difference between a perfect
measurement and the measurement that
actually is made
Because an instrument is designed to operate
over a particular input range, error is often
expressed as
percentage of full scale (%FS); or,
referred to the input (RTI), that is, a fraction of the
input value
 The term full scale refers to the span of the
instrument. Suppose that the %FS error of a
temperature transmitter is 1% and the zero and
span are adjusted so that the instrument operates
over the range 10-70 C.
Since the span is 70-10 = 60 C, the measurement
error is 1% of 60 C, or 0.6 C. Consequently, the
relative error (obtained by dividing the error by the
value of the measurement) at 10 C is 0.6/10 = 6%
Thus, when an instrument accuracy is expressed
as %FS, the relative error can be quite large for
small values of the measured variable
 Resolution - refers to the smallest interval
between two numerical values that can be
distinguished.
For example, if a temperature transmitter has a
resolution of 0.1 C, it is not possible for it to
distinguish between actual temperatures of
21.62 C and 21.67 C.
 Precision refers to the variability of a
measurement for specified conditions and a
particular instrument. It is usually expressed as
standard deviation or range.

For example, suppose that a composition sample

was carefully prepared and divided into four parts,
and that the composition of each part was
measured using an analyser. If the four
measurements of a key component are 21.3, 22.7,
20.6, and 21.5%, the analyser precision could be
expressed as the range, 22.7-20.6=2.1%, or as the
standard deviation, 0.87%.
 Repeatability is similar to precision but refers
to the variability of replicate measurements in a
set of data. The variability of data is due to
random errors from both known and unknown
sources. The variability can be expressed as a
range or standard deviation.
 Bias- refers to a constant error in data due to a
deterministic cause rather than random
variations. A thermocouple measurement in a
vessel could be consistently lower than the
actual fluid temperature because of conduction
heat losses, in which the thermocouple is in
contact with the vessel wall.
EXAMPLE

Consider a hypothetical experiment with some

device measuring the flow rate of a liquid
Under conditions that should yield a constant
flowrate, we make a number of measurements
and record them, assuming the instrument can
be read to the nearest 0.01 flow unit
The following figure might result
Referring to the figure:
Precision is limited to 0.01 flow units because
we cannot read the instrument any more
precisely
Precision is related to resolution, which is
defined as the smallest change in input that
will result in a significant change in transducer
output
 the systematic error or bias gives an average
(probable) measured value that is 0.37-0.25=0.12
flow units (too high at these conditions)
the maximum error can be as large as 0.14 units,
hence, the accuracy (inaccuracy) is no worse than
0.14 at these conditions
the repeatability of the measured value is 0.02
flow units at the constant conditions of this
experiment
Note that the precision (resolution) of a transducer
can be good while its accuracy is poor; conversely
the accuracy cannot be good if the precision is
poor
TYPES/SOURCES OF INSTRUMENT ERROR

1)Nonlinearity - was a significant source of error

prior to the availability of digital instrumentation
2)Hysteresis characterized by an output result that
depends on the direction of change of the
instrument input, usually from nonideal magnetic
or electrical components
3)Backlash the mechanical equivalent of
hysteresis, usually from friction effects or gears
with play
 Deadband occurs when there is no output
change (up to some threshold value) for a
change in input
Drift characterized by a slowly changing
instrument output when the input is constant; it
often results from faulty or temperature-
sensitive electrical components, particularly
operational amplifiers
CALIBRATION OF INSTRUMENTS
Any measurement instrument from which a
high degree of accuracy is expected should be
calibrated both initially (before commissioning)
and periodically (as it remains in service)
In recent years, the use of so-called smart
sensors has become more widespread. These
devices incorporate a microcomputer as part of
the sensor/transmitter, which greatly reduce
the need for in-service calibration and checkout
Key features of Smart Sensors
Checks on the internal electronics, such as verifying that
the voltage levels of internal power supplies are within
specifications
Checks on environmental conditions with instruments
Compensation of the measured value for conditions
such as temperature and pressure within the instrument
Linearizing the output of the transmitter can be done
within the instrument instead of within the control
system
Configuring the transmitter from a remote location, such
as changing the span of the output
Automatic recalibration of the transmitter
-END-
Prepared by Engr. Ronald Ringor, ChE
SENSORS - PRESSURE
MECHANICAL
Manometers (differential)
Pitot -
Bourdon Gauge
ELECTRONIC
Strain Gauge
Capacitance
Potentiometers
Piezoelectric elements
SENSORS-TEMPERATURE

Thermometers
Thermocouple

Thermistors

Pyrometers

Bimetal thermometers
SENSORS-LEVEL
DIRECT /MECHNICAL MEASUREMENT
Floats
Rotary (paddles)
Vibrating
Dipsticks
ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENT
Ultrasonic (propagation of sound waves)
Capacitance (change in capacitance)
Optical (refraction of light)
Radio Frequency (change in frequency)
SENSORS-FLOW
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE (obstruction in flow)
Variable Area
Orifices
Flow Nozzles
Venturi tubes & Flow Tubes
Pitot tubes
Target meters
V-cones
Elbow meters
SENSORS-FLOW
OPEN CHANNEL
Weirs
Parshall flumes
VELOCITY
Turbines & Paddlewheels
Ultrasonic
Electromagnetic
Vortex shedding
SENSORS-FLOW
MASS
Coriolis
Thermal
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT
Oval Gear & Impeller
Helical Rotors
Rotary Vanes
Reciprocating Pistons
Nutating Disks
COMPOSITION
ANALYZERS (GAS)
In situ
Extractive
CHROMATOGRAPHY (separation)
GC
HPLC
TLC
SPECTROMETERS (light wavelengths)
Atomic absorption, emission, fluoresence
Molecular Spectrophotometers, mass
spectrometers, Infrared spectrometers etc.
OTHER SENSORS

TURBIDIMETERS (relative clarity of fluid)

COLORIMETERS (absorbance & transmittance
of light)
CONDUCTIVITY METERS

HUMIDITY MEASUREMENTS

pH MEASUREMENT