PIPING INSTRUMENTS-I

Introduction
Instruments are critical components in piping systems because they are needed to ensure smooth flow of fluid and
maintain desired production levels and quality. Instruments sense, transmit, indicate, record or control process
parameters such as temperature, pressure, flow, and level. An instrument must detect a change in a parameter like
temperature, pressure or flow to be useful. This change is converted into a signal like current or voltage that is
calibrated for interpretation. Often there is the need to change a signal from one energy form to another. For
example, a current signal may have to be converted to a pressure signal or verse versa. A transducer is used for this
application.

The common types of instruments in piping system include sensors, transducers, alarms, indicators, recorders,
regulators, and controllers. Instruments are useful only after they are accurately calibrated. The most common type
of calibration is static calibration in which values of the physical quantities during calibration remain constant. Only
the magnitudes of the input and output variables are important. Sometimes, dynamic calibration is necessary and
standard test signals such as sinusoidal or step signals are used. Accuracy and precision are static instrument
characteristics that are very important in their applications. Instrument manufacturers normally state accuracy and
precision as a percentage of the instrument output span. Instrumentation is a configuration of an instrument or a
group of instruments that can carry out the control of a process variable.

Process Instrument Types

An instrument is a device that can measure, display, monitor, and or control a process variable. These include
meters and gauges (measuring or sensing instruments), display devices, controllers, transmitters, and valves. A
measuring instrument determines the size of a process variable. Fig. 1 shows a process control loop with basic
instruments. According to their functions, instruments may be classified as sensors, transducers, transmitters,
controllers, regulators, recorders, alarms, and indicators. Sensors and transmitters are the common measuring
instruments in piping systems.

Sensor (Primary Element)

The sensor or primary element in Fig. 1 is
the sensing device in the control loop.
Sensors are often enhanced transducers.
Examples of sensors are thermocouples,
pressure gauges, level gauges, and
flowmeters. Electronic level sensors include
capacitance, ultrasonic, and radiation meters.
Electronic flow meters include ultrasonic,
turbine, and electromagnetic meters. Strain
gauge and piezoelectric devices are
electronic pressure sensor-transducers.
Thermocouples, resistance temperature
devices (RTDs), and thermistors are
electronic temperature sensor-transducers.
The primary element normally sends its
signal to a transmitter.
Fig. 1: Feedback control loop
Transducer
A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy to another. Transducers are used extensively in control
systems and are often integral part of sensors and transmitters. Common transducers are pneumatic-current (P/I) or
current-pneumatic (I/P) and voltage-pressure (E/P) transducers.

Transmitter
Transmitters are devices that condition a measured process variable into a standard signal range. Common control
signals are pressure, voltage, and current. The standard pressure range is 3 – 15 psig; the standard voltage range is 1
- 5 V DC; and the standard range of current is 4 – 20 mA DC. Transmitters sometimes function as transducers and
send signals to the controllers, recorders, indicators, and alarms.
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Controller
The controller uses the control or error signal it receives to drive the final control element or regulator. It is the
brain or decision maker in a control loop. A controller incorporates a comparator, a device that compares the output
value of a process with the reference value and generates an error signal. The error signal may be a voltage signal,
electrical current, or air pressure. The error signal may be amplified before being applied to the final control
element. Controllers have built-in algorithms that determine the corrective action required by the final control
element.

Regulator
The regulator is also called the final control element. It uses the control signal from the controller to regulate the
control variable so as to minimize or eliminate the error signal. Examples of final elements are control valves,
variable-speed drives, relays, pumps, and dampers.

Indicator
An indicator is a device that displays the current value of a process variable. The display may be on a scale in
analog or digital form. Digital display is gradually replacing analog display. Sometimes indicators are integrated
with sensors, transducers, recorders, and
controllers. Indicators normally receive input
from transmitters or sensors.

Alarm
An alarm is a device that produces a signal such
as light or sound when a process variable value
is out of permissible range. Alarms normally
receive input from transmitters, sensors, or
controllers.

Recorder
A recorder is a device that records the current
value of a process variable. The record could be
on paper, on computer screens, and electronic
storage devices. Recorders normally receive
input from transmitters or sensors.

Fig. 2 shows some instruments in a pipe run.

Several instruments may be mounted on a pipe
branch. Instruments shown include flow valves,
pressure valves and gauges, thermometers, level
indicators, etc. Fig. 2: Pipe run instrumentation

Measuring Instruments
Measuring instruments sense and determine the size of process variables by detecting changes in levels. They are
calibrated for reading and recording. Measuring instruments greatly extend human senses and may be classified as
meters and gauges. Gauges most often refer to pressure and level meters.

Temperature Measurements
Temperature meters may be calibrated to a variety of temperature scales. Temperature sensors operate on the basis
that certain material properties respond to changes in temperature. Thermometers are calibrated based on the
expansion and contraction of gasses, liquid, or solids due to temperature changes. Hence, there are lliquid
thermometers, gas thermometers, and solid (bimetallic) thermometers. Electrical and electronic properties also
respond to temperature changes, leading to temperature sensors such as thermocouples, resistance temperature
detectors (RTDs), and thermistors. Thermal radiation based temperature sensors are called pyrometers.

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 Electrical Thermometer Advantages Disadvantages
Thermistor High sensitivity Non-linear response
• Negative temperature coefficient (NTC) Fast response Narrow temperature span
• -40 oC to 149 oC (-40 oF to 300 oF) Low cost
Vibration resistant
RTD Linear response Low sensitivity
• Positive temperature coefficient (PTC) Large temperature span High cost
o o o o
• -100 C to 760 C (-150 F to 1400 F) Large resistance range Vibration
Interchangeability
Thermocouple Linear response with a Least sensitive
• Voltage or current proportional to given temperature range Reference required
temperature
• -207 oC to 2315 oC (-300 oF to 4200 oF)
Table 1: Electrical thermometers

a) Liquid thermometer b)Thermocouples

Fig. 3: Common temperature sensors
Pressure Sensors
Pressure sensors are the most common instruments in process plants. Accurate measurement of pressure is very
important in industrial plants because of potential explosion from high pressure. An explosion can cause injury to
personnel or damage equipments. Often pressurized devices operate within a pressure range and alarms can be set
to indicate deviation from the range. Equipment shut down may be initiated by a deviation from a pressure range
setting. Another reason for accurate measurement of pressure is that the quality of a product may be influenced by
pressure and temperature sometimes. Maximizing efficiency and productivity of processes often requires accurate
pressure information.

Pressure sensors are commonly called pressure gauges. They may be classified into liquid, mechanical, and
electrical gauges. Liquid pressure gauges are called manometers. Common mechanical pressure gauges include
Bourdon, bellows, and diaphram gauges. Common electrical pressure gauges include resistance, capacitance,
inductance, reluctance, and piezoelectric sensors. Pressure gauges are sensitive to variations in ambient atmospheric
pressure, especially those located in enclosed spaces. Proper installation must be done to minimize this effect which
causes loss of accuracy. The reliability and accuracy of pressure gauges is influenced by ambient temperature also.
This is because the resistances of the electrical elements in the instrumentation circuits may be directly affected.
Temperature effects are reduced by circuitry design and proper maintenance of the gauge which should be used in
the right environment. Inspection and re-calibration should be done at regular intervals. Fig. 4 show some
mechanical pressure gauges.

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 a) Bourdon gauge b) Bellows gauge c) Diaphram gauge
Fig. 4: Some mechanical pressure gauges

Flow Meters
Flow meters are used to measure fluid flow rate and or velocity. A flow meter is usually a combination of a
transducer, transmitter, and a display panel. The transducer senses the flow, the transmitter conditions the flow
variable to standard output value and the display panel shows the flow size. Most often the panel records the
measurement also. Different services require different types of flow meters so many flow meters are designed for
specific needs. There are meters that measure flow velocity and these include turbine, magnetic, ultrasonic, and
vortex flow meters. Positive displacement flow meters measure fluid flow rate and there are several of them like
the gear meters. The Coriolis and thermal meter are mass flow rate meters. Inferential flow meters are those that are
used to infer flow velocity or rate based on the measurement of other variables such as differential pressure. In
electronic meters, flow is determined from changes or disturbances of electrical or electronic properties of sensor
materials due to fluid flow. These may be temperature, magnetic, or sound properties that can be converted to
voltage or current variables.

A common instrument for pressure and flow measurement is the orifice flow meter. It consists of an orifice plate
placed at the middle of two (orifice) flanges- see Fig. 5. Each orifice flange has tapped holes on both sides for
attaching pressure sensing devices. A gasket is inserted between the orifice plate and a flange face. The orifice plate
has a central hole accurately machined. Standard orifice plates have holes of 1/8, ¼, 3/8, ½, 5/8, and ¾ of pipe
nominal diameter. The hole of the orifice plate sets up a well-defined obstruction to fluid flow and its resistance
results in a pressure difference on the sides of the plate that is used to measure the rate of fluid flow. The outlet
pressure is normally about 60 – 80% of the inlet pressure. The flow rate of the fluid is deduced form the pressure
difference between the two pressure taps. An orifice meter must be carefully positioned on a flow line to ensure
accurate results- see Fig. 6. So the device must be mounted in a straight run portion on the line, removed from
disturbances of flow patterns from pipe fittings and valves. The orifice flow meter is the most common flow meter
in process industry. It is estimated that over 80% of industrial and commercial flow meters is orifice flow meter.
Fig. 7 shows some common flow meters. Ultrasonic flow meters are shown in Fig. 8.

Fig. 5: Orifice plate location Fig. 6: Orifice flow meter

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 a) Rotameter b) Turbine flow meter

c) Vortex flow meter d) Magnetic flow meter

Fig. 7: Common flow meters

a) Fluid reflected wave b) Transducer reflected wave

Fig. 8: Ultrasonic flow meters

Careful consideration must be made about the type of flow when selecting a flowmeter. Since the type of flow is
determined by the Reynolds number, it does influence the type of flowmeter for specific applications because
flowmeters may be designed for laminar or turbulent flow. A flowmeter designed for laminar flow will give
erroneous readings if used in a turbulent flow line. Similarly, a flowmeter designed for turbulent flow will give
erroneous readings if used in a laminar flow line.

Level Meters
A variety of devices can be used to measure and record levels of fluid or solids in a container. The method they use
for measurement may be classified into direct and inferred (indirect) methods. Direct methods measure depth or
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height of fluid or the space above it. Inferred methods measure variables apart from height or dept, such as pressure
from which the level is derived. Level meters may be classified into two groups, namely mechanical and electronic
meters. Devices in each group use one or the two methods of direct and inferred measurements. Point and
continuous level measurement may be made. Point measurement gives information of material content at defined
points in the container. This is quite suitable to high and low limit setup for indicators and alarms. Continuous level
measurement allows the tracking of material quantity and is suitable for inventory applications.

Common mechanical level meters include glass gauges, float, displacer, bubbler, and differential pressure meters.
See Figs. 9 to 13 for schematic representations. Other type of level meters are represented in Figs, 14 to 16.The
glass gauges, float and displacement meters are direct measurement devices while the bubbler and differential
pressure meters are inferred measurement devices. The common electronic level meters are capacitance, ultrasonic,
and radiation meters. Electronic equipments are sensitive to temperature and humidity. Variation in ambient
temperature can affect the resistance of electrical and electronic components which can affect instrument
calibration. High humidity can cause moisture to collect in instruments which may lead to short circuiting and
damaging of components. Temperature variation effects can be minimized by proper design. Using the instrument
in the right environment can minimize or eliminate humidity and temperature problems.

Fig 9: Glass gauge Fig 10: Float meter Fig 11: Displacer meter

Fig 12: Bubbler meter Fig 13: Differential pressure meter

Fig 14: Capacitance meter Fig 15: Ultrasonic meter Fig 16: Radiation meter

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Analysis and Analyzers
Analysis is the process of determining the types of substances and their proportion in a sample. There are two types
of analysis, namely qualitative and quantitative analysis. Qualitative analysis determines the types of substances in
a sample. Quantitative analysis determines the amount of each substance in a sample and may be reported in parts
per million (ppm), percent (%), ratio, or in the relevant standard unit. Analysis is extremely important in industrial
production. Usually, it is necessary to know the types and quantities of material components used as raw materials,
intermediate materials, and final products in production systems. The chemical composition and proportions of the
constituents of the materials constitute another aspect of analysis. Generally, a representative sample of the material
(gas, liquid or solid) is isolated for analysis. A representative sample has the same composition as the process
material. Analysis may be done in centralized laboratories in the production facilities or may be carried out in
specialized facilities offsite. Specially designed devices for analysis can be mounted on process lines to monitor the
process stream.

Analyzer is the instrument used to carry out analysis on samples of substances. Analyzers are also called meters and
are used to monitor various physical and chemical properties of process streams. They are designed to withstand
harsh industrial environments. Analyzers can be mounted on-line or off-line on process lines and can be left
unattended to continuously monitor process streams. On-line analyzers give best response, provide frequent or
continuous monitoring and analysis, but they are more complex. Careful maintenance and attention to calibration
are very vital for ensuring functional reliability of analyzers.

Gas analyzers measure concentration of gases in a clean sample at constant temperature and pressure. Several
technologies are used in analyzing gasses. These include thermal conductivity, opacity, gas chromatography,
radiant energy analyzers, and oxygen. Thermal conductivity analyzers measure conductivity of sample gases.
Ultraviolet (UV) analyzers measure the absorption of ultraviolet radiation by different gases. Oxygen analyzers
measure the amount of oxygen available for combustion. Humidity analyzers determine the humidity of air. Liquid
analyzers measure the properties of liquids such as density, viscosity, turbidity, composition, concentration, solid
content, etc. Liquid analyzers use different technologies that include liquid chromatography, radiant energy, nuclear
radiation, viscosity, refraction, hygrometers, differential pressure, pH and oxidation/reduction analysis. Solid
moisture analyzers measure the moisture content in solids. Solids are analyzed with gravimetric, near infrared,
microwave, and electrical impedance analyzers. It is not possible to list all the analyzers employed in the industry,
so the listing given above is not exhaustive.

pH Analysis
The pH is a measure of the molar concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution. It indicates the level of acidity or
basicity of a solution. The letters “pH” is an acronym for the “power of Hydrogen ions”. Mathematically, the pH of
a solution is the negative of the logarithm of the molar concentration of hydrogen ions. That is:
pH = -log10[H+]; [H+] = molar concentration of hydrogen ions
pH meters measure the concentration of hydrogen ions in an aqueous solution. pH values is in the range of 0 – 14.
pH of less than 7 means the solution is acidic, and pH of more than 7
means the solution is alkaline or basic. pH of 7 is neutral, the value
for pure water. The pH meter of Fig. 17 works on the principle of
electrochemistry like a battery. The meter has three electrodes,
namely the sensor electrode, the reference electrode, and thermo-
compensator electrode. The sensor electrode is a glass bulb where
the liquid sample is placed. The sample electrode measures the small
electromotive force (EMF) or voltage across a hydrogen ion in a
sample. The detected EMF is compared with the EMF from the
reference electrode with a neutral solution and the output voltage is
calibrated in pH values. The thermo-compensator uses an RTD
circuit to correct for temperature influence on pH values because pH
values are very sensitive to temperature. The normal range of pH
values for the human blood is 7.35 – 7.45; with a nominal value of
7.4. This is accurately regulated by the human body. A value
outside the normal range can be serious and even fatal.
Fig. 17: pH meter
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Chromatography
Chromatography is the process of separating and identifying molecules of a liquid or gas by means of a tube
column with absorptive media. A sample gas is transported through the column of stratified media by an inert
carrier stream. Typical inert gas carriers are argon, helium, and nitrogen and some media types are porous silica
microspheres, activated alumina, and activated carbon. Porous silica microspheres are often coated with chemically
selective compounds to modify their characteristics. As the sample stream goes through the column, each
component is absorbed at the level where it has affinity for the medium packing. This allows the components in a
sample to be identified and their proportion to be computed on volume basis. Factors affecting analysis are time,
temperature, pressure, and flow rate. Temperature, pressure, and flow rates are carefully regulated so that ample
propagation time becomes the main discriminating parameter. The sensor is placed at the end of the column so as to
detect the separated gas components. A graphic report of the analysis called chromatograph with the separated
components have unique peaks, summarizes the results. Chromatography is a popular method of composition
analysis. Fig. 18 shows the schematics of chromatographic analyzer.

Fig. 18: Schematics of chromatographic Analyzer

Spectroscopy
Spectroscopy is the process of using the variation in absorption or transmittance of a light spectrum passed through
a sample to identify the components of the sample, and determine the proportion of the components. The process
can use visible light spectrum, ultravalet light, infrared light, or near infrared (NIR) as a source and detection
measurement. Spectroscope or spectrometer is an analyzer that carries out spectroscopy. A common laboratory
spectrometer can detect wavelengths from 2 nm to 2500 nm. A spectrometer consists of a light source, filter,
sample cell, and reference cell. The difference in exit energy detected between the sample and reference cells is
proportional to the energy absorbed by the sample. Detailed information about the physical properties of objects,
gases, or even stars can be obtained from this type of device. A mass spectrometer separates components of a gas
mixture by mass and charge. Fig. 19 shows the schematics of spectrometer.

Fig.4: Block diagram of spectrometer

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SUMMARY
Instruments are critical components in piping systems because they are needed to ensure smooth flow of fluid and
maintain desired production levels and quality. They sense, transmit, indicate, record monitor and or control
parameters like flow rate, pressure and temperature. The five process parameters of flow, level, pressure,
temperature, and analysis have special instruments that are designed to sense and monitor them. An instrument
must detect a change in a parameter like temperature, pressure or flow to be useful. This change is converted into a
signal like current or voltage that is calibrated for interpretation. Console or board mounted instruments have these
signals transmitted to control panels. Sometimes the signal is used to activate other devices and effect changes in
the process conditions. This is how automatic control is done. Gauges measure the pressure, temperature or liquid
level in equipment. Indicators display the level of process parameters. Recorders record the level of process
parameters while controllers activate other devices so as to maintain a specific level of a process parameter.
Alarms give light or sound signals when operating levels of process parameters are too high or too low. They are
also activated when there is no flow or a when back flow occurs.