5-1

Chap. 5 Basic Computer Org. and Design

 5-1 Instruction Codes

 The user of a computer can control the process by means of a program
 A program is a set of instructions that specify the operations, operand, the
sequence(control)
 A instruction is a binary code that specifies a sequence of microoperations
 Instruction codes together with data are stored in memory(=Stored Program
Concept)
 The computer reads each instruction from memory and places it in a
Instruction control register. The control then interprets the binary code of the
Cycle instruction and proceeds to execute it by issuing a sequence of
microoperations.
 Instruction Code :
 A group of bits that instruct the computer to perform a specific operation
 It is usually divided into parts(refer to Fig. 5-1 instruction format) Instruction Format
 Operation Code : 15 12 11 0

 The most basic part of an instruction code Op. Code Address

 A group of bits that define such operations as add, subtract, multiply, shift, and
complement(bit 12-15 : 24 = 16 가지 distinct operations)
Computer System Architecture Chap. 5 Basic Computer Organization and Design Dept. of Info. Of Computer
 5-2

 Stored Program Organization : Fig. 5-1

 The simplest way to organize a computer
» One processor register : AC(Accumulator)
 The operation is performed with the memory operand and the content of AC
» Instruction code format with two parts : Op. Code + Address
 Op. Code : specify 16 possible operations(4 bit)
Exam)
Clear AC, Increment AC,  Address : specify the address of an operand(12 bit)
Complement AC, ...  If an operation in an instruction code does not need an operand from memory, the rest of the
bits in the instruction(address field) can be used for other purpose(따라서 16개 이상의
instruction을 사용 : Tab. 5-2 참고, 총 25 개 instruction)
» Memory : 12 bit = 4096 word(Instruction and Data are stored)
 Store each instruction code(program) and operand (data) in 16-bit memory word

 Addressing Mode
 Immediate operand address :
» the second part of an instruction code(address field) specifies an operand
 Direct operand address : Fig. 5-2(b)
» the second part of an instruction code specifies the address of an operand
 Indirect operand address : Fig. 5-2(c)
I=0 : Direct, » the bits in the second part of the instruction designate an address of a memory word
I=1 : Indirect in which the address of the operand is found (Pointer로 사용됨)
 One bit of the instruction code is used to distinguish between a direct and an
indirect address : Fig. 5-2(a)
Computer System Architecture Chap. 5 Basic Computer Organization and Design Dept. of Info. Of Computer
 5-3

 Effective Address
 The operand address in computation-type instruction or the target address in a
branch-type instruction
 5-2 Computer Registers
 List of Registers for the Basic Computer : Tab. 5-1
 Basic computer registers and memory : Fig. 5-3
 Data Register(DR) : hold the operand(Data) read from memory
 Accumulator Register(AC) : general purpose processing register
 Instruction Register(IR) : hold the instruction read from memory
 Temporary Register(TR) : hold a temporary data during processing
 Address Register(AR) : hold a memory address, 12 bit width
 Program Counter(PC) :
» hold the address of the next instruction to be read from memory after the current
instruction is executed
» Instruction words are read and executed in sequence unless a branch instruction is
encountered
» A branch instruction calls for a transfer to a nonconsecutive instruction in the program
» The address part of a branch instruction is transferred to PC to become the address of
the next instruction
» To read instruction, memory read cycle is initiated, and PC is incremented by one(next
instruction fetch)

Computer System Architecture Chap. 5 Basic Computer Organization and Design Dept. of Info. Of Computer
 5-4

 Input Register(INPR) : receive an 8-bit character from an input device

 Output Register(OUTR) : hold an 8-bit character for an output device
 Common Bus System
 The basic computer has eight registers, a memory unit, and a control unit(in Sec.
5-4)
 Paths must be provided to transfer information from one register to another and
between memory and registers
 A more efficient scheme for transferring information in a system with many
registers is to use a common bus(in Sec. 4-3)
 The connection of the registers and memory of the basic computer to a common
bus system : Fig. 5-4
» The outputs of seven registers and memory are connected to the common bus
» The specific output is selected by mux(S0, S1, S2) :
 Memory(7), AR(1), PC(2), DR(3), AC(4), IR(5), TR(6)
 외부 Device와의 입출력은 AC를 통해서 가능하기 때문에 INPR과 OUTR은 선택 없음
 mux가 선택되어지면 memory 또는 register로 부터 데이터가 출력되어 bus위에 놓여진다
 When LD(Load Input) is enable, the particular register receives the data from the bus
» Control Input : LD, INC, CLR, Write, Read
» Address Register : 별도의 Address bus 불필요(하나의 Bus로 address와 data 동시처리)
 AC는 DR을 통해서만 memory read 가능(p. 146, LDA 명령 참조)
 Memory write는 AC의 내용을 직접 write 가능(p. 147, STA 명령 참조)

Computer System Architecture Chap. 5 Basic Computer Organization and Design Dept. of Info. Of Computer
 5-5

» Accumulator(AC) : 3 종류의 입력 Path

s2
 1) Register Microoperation : clear AC, s1 Bus
shfift AC,… Memory unit
s0
7
4096× 16 Address
 2) Data Register : add DR to AC, and
DR to AC(연산결과는 AC에 저장하고
결과에 따라 End carry bit set/reset),
Write Read
AR
memory READ(DR을 통해서만 가능) 1

 3) INPR : 외부 Device에서 데이터 LD INR CLR

입력(Adder & Logic을 거치지 않아도 PC 2

됨) LD INR CLR

» Note) Two microoperations can be DR

3

executed
DR  AC : sats sthe same
 100 time
(4), DR (load )
LD INR CLR
2 1 0

AC  DR : DR  Adder & Logic  AC (load ) Adder

and
E
AC 4
logic
LD INR CLR

INPR

IR 5

LD

TR
6
LD INR CLR

OUTR

Clock
LD

16-bit common bus

Computer System Architecture Chap. 5 Basic Computer Organization and Design Dept. of Info. Of Computer
 5-6

 5-3 Computer Instruction

 3 Instruction Code Formats : Fig. 5-5
Hex Code
 Memory-reference instruction Symbol I=0 I=1 Description
» Opcode = 000  110 AND 0xxx 8xxx And memory word to AC
ADD 1xxx 9xxx Add memory word to AC
 I=0 : 0xxx ~ 6xxx, I=1: 8xxx ~Exxx LDA 2xxx Axxx Load memory word to AC
STA 3xxx Bxxx Store content of AC in memory
I=0 : Direct, 15 14 12 11 0 BUN 4xxx Cxxx Branch unconditionally
I=1 : Indirect BSA 5xxx Dxxx Branch and Save return address
I Opcode Address ISZ 6xxx Exxx Increment and skip if zero
CLA 7800 Clear AC
CLE 7400 Clear E
CMS 7200 Complement AC
 Register-reference instruction CME 7100 Complement E
CIR 7080 Circulate right AC and E
» 7xxx (7800 ~ 7001) : CLA, CMA, …. CIL 7040 Circulate left AC and E
INC 7020 Increment AC
15 14 12 11 0 SPA 7010 Skip next instruction if AC positive
SNA 7008 Skip next instruction if AC negative
0 1 1 1 Register Operation SZA 7004 Skip next instruction if AC zero
SZE 7002 Skip next instruction if E is 0
HLT 7001 Halt computer
INP F800 Input character to AC
OUT F400 Output character from AC
 Input-Output instruction SKI F200 Skip on input flag
SKO F100 Skip on output flag
» Fxxx(F800 ~ F040) : INP, OUT, ION, SKI, …. ION F080 Interrupt On
IOF F040 Interrupt Off
15 14 12 11 0

1 1 1 1 I/O Operation

Computer System Architecture Chap. 5 Basic Computer Organization and Design Dept. of Info. Of Computer
 5-7

 Instruction Set Completeness If the computer includes a sufficient number of

instructions in each of the following categories
 Arithmetic, Logical, and shift : CMA, INC, ..
 Moving information to and from memory and AC : STA, LDA
 Program control : BUN, BSA, ISZ
 Input/Output : INP, OUT

 5-4 Timing and Control

 Clock pulses
 A master clock generator controls the timing for all registers in the basic computer
 The clock pulses are applied to all F/Fs and registers in system
 The clock pulses do not change the state of a register unless the register is
enabled by a control signal
 The control signals are generated in the control unit : Fig. 5-6
» The control signals provide control inputs for the multiplexers in the common bus,
control inputs in processor registers, and microoperations for the accumulator
 Two major types of control organization
 Hardwired Control : Chap. 5
» The control logic is implemented with gates, F/Fs, decoders, and other digital circuits
» + Fast operation, - Wiring change(if the design has to be modified)

Computer System Architecture Chap. 5 Basic Computer Organization and Design Dept. of Info. Of Computer
 5-8

 Microprogrammed Control : Chap. 7

» The control information is stored in a control memory, and the control memory is
programmed to initiate the required sequence of microoperations
» + Any required change can be done by updating the microprogram in control memory, -
Slow operation
Instruction register (IR)
15 14 13 12 11 - 0
 Control Unit : Fig. 5-6
 Control Unit = Control Logic Gate +
3× 8
3 X 8 Decoder + Instruction Register decoder
Other inputs

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
+ Timing Signal
I D0
 Timing Signal = 4 X 16 Decoder + .
.
D7 . Control
Control
4-bit Sequence Counter logic
outputs

gates
 Exam) Control timing : Fig. 5-7 T 15
.

» Sequence Counter is cleared when T0

.
.

.
.
.
D3T4 =1 : D3T4 : SC  0 15 14 1 0

.
.
.
4× 16
 Memory R/W cycle time > Clock decoder

cycle time
» 만약 위와 같이 가정하지 않으면, wait
Increment(INR)
4-bit
sequence
cycle을 추가해야 함.
Clear(CLR)
counter
(SC)
Clock

Computer System Architecture Chap. 5 Basic Computer Organization and Design Dept. of Info. Of Computer
 5-9

 Exam) Register transfer statement : T0 : AR  PC

 A transfer of the content of PC into AR if timing signal T0 is active
» 1) During T0 active, the content of PC is placed onto the bus ( S2 S1S0 )
» 2) LD(load) input of AR is enabled, the actual transfer occurs at the next positive
transition of the clock(T0 rising edge clock)
» 3) SC(sequence counter) is incremented : 0000(T0 )  0000(T1 ) T0 : Inactive
T1 : Active
 5-5 Instruction Cycle
 Instruction Cycle
 1) Instruction Fetch from Memory
Continue
 2) Instruction Decode
indefinitely
 3) Read Effective Address(if indirect addressing mode) unless HALT
 4) Instruction Execution instruction is
encountered
 5) Go to step 1) : Next Instruction[PC + 1]

 Instruction Fetch : T0, T1(Fig. 5-8)

T0 : AR  PC
T1 : IR  M [ AR], PC  PC  1

 T0 = 1 T0 : AR  PC
» 1) Place the content of PC onto the bus by making the bus selection inputs S2S1S0=010
» 2) Transfer the content of the bus to AR by enabling the LD input of AR

Computer System Architecture Chap. 5 Basic Computer Organization and Design Dept. of Info. Of Computer
 5-10

 T1 = 1 T1 : IR  M [ AR], PC  PC  1
» 1) Enable the read input memory
» 2) Place the content of memory onto the bus by making S2S1S0= 111
» 3) Transfer the content of the bus to IR by enable the LD input of IR
» 4) Increment PC by enabling the INR input of PC

 Instruction Decode : T2 T1=1 s2

0 1
T2 : D0 ,...., D7  Decode IR(12  14), AR  IR(0  11), I  IR(15) T0=1 s1
Bus 1 1
s0
Op.code Address Di/Indirect 0 1
Memory
Memory unit
unit 7

 IR(12-14)에 따라 Fig. 5-6 에서 D0 - D7 출력 Address

Read

 Instruction Execution : T3, T4, T5, T6

IR (12  14)
D7=1 Register(I=0) D7I’T3(Execute) Read effective
 111 AR 1
I/O (I=1) D7IT3 (Execute) Address
LD

D7=0 : Memory Ref. Indirect(I=1) D7’IT3( AR  M [AR] )

PC 2
Direct (I=0) nothing in T3
INR

 Register 와 I/O 명령은 T3에서 실행되며 Memory Ref.

명령은 T3에서 Operand의 effective address를 읽음 IR 5

 Memory Ref. 명령은 종류에 따라 T4, T5, T6을 갖음 : LD

Clock
Fig. 5-11
 Flowchart for instruction cycle(Initial Common bus

Configuration) : Fig. 5-9

Computer System Architecture Chap. 5 Basic Computer Organization and Design Dept. of Info. Of Computer
 5-11

 Register Ref. Instruction

Address 로
 r = D7I’T3 : 공통항 사용되지 않음 Fig. 5-9 Flowchart for instruction cycle(initial)
 IR(i) = Bi IR(0 -11)
Start

 B0 - B11 : 12 개의 Register Ref.

SC 0

T0
Instruction (Tab. 5-3) AR PC

 5-6 Memory Ref. Instruction IR M[AR], PC PC+1

T1

IR(12,13,14)
3X8 D7 : Register or I/O = 1 = 111 Decode operation code in IR(12-14)
T2

D6 - D0 : 7 개의 Memory Ref.
AR IR(0-11), I I(15)
Decoder
Instruction(Tab. 5-4) (Register or I/O) = 1
I
0 = (Memory-reference

 AND to AC
(I/O) = 1 0 = (register) (indirect) = 1 0 = (direct)
D0T4 : DR  M [ AR] I I

D0T5 : AC  AC  DR , SC  0 T3 T3 T3 T3

Execute Execute
 ADD to AC
AR M[AR] Nothing
input-output register-reference
instruction instruction
SC 0 SC 0
D1T4 : DR  M [ AR]
Execute

D1T5 : AC  AC  DR , E  Cout , SC  0 memory-reference

instruction
SC 0

 LDA : memory read

D2T4 : DR  M [ AR]
D2T5 : AC  DR , SC  0

Computer System Architecture Chap. 5 Basic Computer Organization and Design Dept. of Info. Of Computer
 5-12

 STA : memory write Fig. 5-10 Example of BSA

D3T4 : M [ AR]  AC, SC  0
PC = 10 0 BSA 135
 BUN : branch unconditionally PC = 21 next instruction
D4T4 : PC  AR, SC  0
 BSA : branch and save return address 135 21(return address)
PC = 136
D5T4 : M [ AR]  PC, AR  AR  1 Subroutine
D5T5 : PC  AR, SC  0 1 BUN 135

 Return Address : save return address ( 135 21 )

 Subroutine Call : Fig. 5-10 D5T4 : M [135]  21( PC ), 136( AR)  135  1
 ISZ : increment and skip if zero D5T5 : 136( PC )  136( AR), SC  0
D6T4 : DR  M [ AR]
D6T5 : DR  DR  1
D6T6 : M [ AR]  DR , if ( DR  0) then ( PC  PC  1), SC  0

 Control Flowchart : Fig. 5-11

 Flowchart for the 7 memory reference instruction
» The longest instruction : ISZ(T6)
» 따라서 3 bit Sequence Counter로 구현가능(현재 4 비트는 확장에 대비함)

Computer System Architecture Chap. 5 Basic Computer Organization and Design Dept. of Info. Of Computer
 5-13

 5-7 Input-Output and Interrupt

 Input-Output Configuration : Fig. 5-12
 Input Register(INPR), Output Register(OUTR)
» These two registers communicate with a communication interface serially and with the
AC in parallel
» Each quantity of information has eight bits of an alphanumeric code
 Input Flag(FGI), Output Flag(FGO)
1 : Ready » FGI : set when INPR is ready(입력데이터가 있을 때), clear when INPR is empty
0 : Not ready » FGO : set when operation is completed(데이터 출력 완료), clear when output device is
in the process of printing
 Input-Output Instruction : Tab. 5-5
 p = D7IT3 : 공통항 Address 로
사용되지 않음
 IR(i) = Bi IR(6 -11)
 B6 - B11 : 6 개의 I/O Instruction

 Program Interrupt
 I/O Transfer Modes
» 1) Programmed I/O, 2) Interrupt-initiated I/O, 3) DMA, 4) IOP
» 본 교과서에서는 2) Interrupt-initiated I/O 방식 사용(FGI 또는 FGO가 1이면 Int. 발생)
» Maskable Interrupt 사용( ION 또는 IOF 명령을 사용하여 Int. mask 가능)

Computer System Architecture Chap. 5 Basic Computer Organization and Design Dept. of Info. Of Computer
 5-14

 Interrupt Cycle : Fig. 5-13 Instruction cycle =0

R
=1 Interrupt cycle

» During the execute phase, IEN is checked by the control Fetch and decode
Store return address
instruction
in location 0
 IEN = 0 : the programmer does not want to use the interrupt, M[0] PC

so control continues with the next instruction cycle Execute

instruction
IEN
=0

=1
 IEN = 1 : the control circuit checks the flag bit, If either flag Branch to location 1
PC 1
=1
set to 1, R F/F is set to 1 FGI

=0
» At the end of the execute phase, control checks the value of R =1 IEN 0

R = 0 : 보통의 instruction cycle로 들어감

FGO R 0
 =0

 R = 1 : Instruction cycle로 들어감

R 1

 Demonstration of the interrupt cycle : Fig. 5-14

» The memory location at address 0 as the place for storing the return address
» Interrupt 발생시 항상 Branch to memory location 1
» Interrupt cycle에서 항상 IEN=0 으로 함(따라서 ISR에서 Interrupt를 받기 위해서는 ISR
앞부분에서 반드시 ION 명령을 실행해야 함)
0 256(return address)
 The condition for R = 1 PC = 1 0 BUN 1120
T0'T1'T2' ( IEN )( FGI  FGO) : R  1
Main Program
 Modified Fetch Phase Interrupt 255
» Modified Fetch and Decode Phase Here 256

Save Return RT0 : AR  0, TR  PC

Address(PC) at 0 1120 Interrupt
RT1 : M [ AR]  TR, PC  0
Service Routine
Jump to 1(PC=1) RT2 : PC  PC  1, IEN  0, R  0, SC  0 1 BUN 0

Computer System Architecture Chap. 5 Basic Computer Organization and Design Dept. of Info. Of Computer
 5-15

 5-8 Complete Computer Description

 The final flowchart of the instruction cycle : Fig. 5-15
 The control function and microoperation : Tab. 5-6
 5-9 Design of Basic Computer
 The basic computer consists of the following hardware components
 1. A memory unit with 4096 words of 16bits
 2. Nine registers : AR, PC, DR, AC, IR, TR, OUTR, INPR, and SC(Fig. 2-11)
 3. Seven F/Fs : I, S, E, R, IEN, FGI, and FGO
 4. Two decoder in control unit : 3 x 8 operation decoder, 4 x 16 timing
이번 Section
decoder(Fig. 5-6)
에서 설계하
는 주요 내용  5. A 16-bit common bus(Fig. 5-4)
 6. Control Logic Gates : Fig. 5-6의 오른쪽 Box 부분에서 Control Output 설계
 7. Adder and Logic circuit connected to the AC input
 Control Logic Gates
 1. Signals to control the inputs of the nine registers
 2. Signals to control the read and write inputs of memory
 3. Signals to set, clear, or complement the F/Fs
 4. Signals for S2 S1 S0 to select a register for the bus
 5. Signals to control the AC adder and logic circuit

Computer System Architecture Chap. 5 Basic Computer Organization and Design Dept. of Info. Of Computer
 5-16

 Register Control : AR
12 12
 Control inputs of AR : LD, INR, CLR From Bus AR To Bus

Clock
AR  ?  Find all the statements that change the AR D' 7
I
LD INR CLR

in Tab. 5-6 R' T0 : AR  PC T2

T3

 Control functions R' T1 : AR  IR (0  11)

R
LD( AR)  R' T0  R' T1  D7 ' IT3 D7 ' IT3 : AR  M [ AR ] T0
D5
CLR( AR)  RT0 RT0 : AR  0 T4

INR( AR)  D5T4 D5T4 : AR  AR  1

 Memory Control : READ
 Control inputs of Memory : READ, WRITE M [ AR]  ?
 Find all the statements that specify a read operation in Tab. 5-6 ?  M [ AR]
 Control function
READ  R' T1  D7 ' IT3  ( D0  D1  D2  D3 )T4 J KQ(t+1)
0 1 0
 F/F Control : IEN IEN  ? D' 7 p
1 0 1
I SET
T3 J Q
 Control functions B7
Clock IEN
pB7 : IEN  1 B6 K Q
CLR

pB6 : IEN  0 R
T2
RT2 : IEN  0

Computer System Architecture Chap. 5 Basic Computer Organization and Design Dept. of Info. Of Computer
 5-17

 Bus Control
 Encoder for Bus Selection : Tab. 5-7
» S0 = x1 + x3 + x5 + x7
» S1 = x2 + x3 + x6 + x7
» S0 = x4 + x5 + x5 + x7
 x1 = 1 : Bus  AR  Find ?  AR x1
» D T : PC  AR x2
S0
4 4 x3 Multiplexer
D5T5 : PC  AR x4
x5
Encoder S1 Bus Select
S2 Input
x6
» Control Function : x1  D4T4  D5T5 x7

 x2 = 1 : Bus  PC  Find ?  PC

“
“
 x7 = 1 : Bus  Memory  Find ?  M [ AR]
» Same as Memory Read
» Control Function : x7  R' T1  D7 ' IT3  ( D0  D1  D2  D3 )T4

»
Computer System Architecture Chap. 5 Basic Computer Organization and Design Dept. of Info. Of Computer
 5-18

 5-10 Design of Accumulator Logic

 Circuits associated with AC : Fig. 5-19

Fig. 5-21 Fig. 2-11

16

16 Adder and 16 Accumulator 16

From DR logic register
8 circuit (AC) To Bus
From INPR

LD INR CLR Clock

Control
Fig. 5-20 gates

Computer System Architecture Chap. 5 Basic Computer Organization and Design Dept. of Info. Of Computer
 5-19

 Control of AC : Fig. 5-20

 Find the statement that change the AC : AC  ?

16 16
From adder AC To Bus
and logic
Clock
LD INR CLR
D0 AND
T5
D0T5 : AC  AC  DR D1 ADD
D1T5 : AC  AC  DR
D2
D2T5 : AC  DR DR
T5
pB11 : AC (0  7)  INPR LD p INPR
rB9 : AC  AC B 11
r
rB7 : AC  shr AC , AC (15)  E COM
B9
rB6 : AC  shr AC , AC (0)  E SHR
rB11 : AC  0 CLR B7

rB5 : AC  AC  1 INR SHL

B6

INC
B5

CLR
B 11

Computer System Architecture Chap. 5 Basic Computer Organization and Design Dept. of Info. Of Computer
 5-20

 Adder and Logic Circuit : Fig. 5-21 ( 16 bit = 16 개 필요 )

DR(i) AC(i)

(Output of OR gate in Fig. 5-20)

AND LD J KQ(t+1)
0 1 0
1 0 1
C i
ADD J Q
Ii (Fig.2-11) AC(i)
FA
DR
C i+1 K

INPR
From
INPR
bit(i)
Clock
* Fig. 2-11 로 대체 가능
COM
Increment, Clear,
Count 기능
SHR

AC(i+1)
SHL

AC(i-1)

Computer System Architecture Chap. 5 Basic Computer Organization and Design Dept. of Info. Of Computer
 5-21
Mano Machine

 Fig. 5-4 : Common Bus(p.130)

 Fig. 2-11 : Register(p. 59)
 Fig. 5-6 : Control Unit(p. 137)
 Fig. 5-16, 17,18 : Control Logic Gate(p.161- 163)
Integration !  Fig. 5-4의 모든 Component의 Control Input
 각각의 Register, Memory, F/Fs, Bus Selection
 Fig. 5-20 : AC control(p.165)
 Fig. 5-21 : Adder and Logic(p.166)

Due Date : 기말고사 후 1 주일

Computer System Architecture Chap. 5 Basic Computer Organization and Design Dept. of Info. Of Computer