FOR CONSTRUCTION

TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

Lecture 1
Instructor: Amsalu A.
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Foundations: their importance and
purpose
All engineered construction resting on the
earth is carried by an interfacing element
called a foundation.
The foundation is the part of an engineered
system that transmits to, and into, the
underlying soil or rock the loads
supported by the foundation and its self-
weight
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foundation engineer is responsible to
design and analyze foundations.
Thorough understanding of Geotechnical
(soil mechanics, geology, foundation
engineering) and structural (analysis,
design in reinforced concrete and
steel, etc.) engineering is mandatory
for a safe and economical design of
foundations.

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1. Locate the site and the position of load.
2. Physically inspection of the site
3. Establish the field exploration program
4. Determine the necessary soil design
parameters
5. Design the foundation using the soil
parameters from step 4

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 Shallow foundations—termed
bases,
 footings,
 spread footings,
 or mats.
Generally D/B ≤ 1 where,
D: depth of foundation
B: width ( breadth, diameter ) of
foundation
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 Deep foundations—piles, drilled piers, or
drilled caissons. Lp/B ≥ 4+
Lp: Length of pile
B: width ( breadth, diameter ) of foundation

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 Foundation design depends on the type
and purpose of the structure and soil
type. The general requirements are;
 Allowable stress
 Allowable settlement
 Economical design(feasibility)

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 Adequate depth to avoid lateral squeezing
and week soil zone (seasonal volume
change zone)
 Expansive soil condition
 overturning, sliding, and any uplift
(flotation).
 corrosion or deterioration
 later changes in site or construction

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1. Differentiate between spread footing, wall
footing, combined footing , strip footing ,
and strap footing.
2. Define pile foundation , Pile cap, drilled
pier and/or caisson.

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 Obtaininginformation on the soil exposed at the
ground surface, evaluate the sub-surface
conditions by taking samples by boring or by
digging exploratory pits is defined by soil
exploration.
Identification of stratification and
 Purpose:
important engineering properties
 Strength, deformation and hydraulic
 Information needed: for decision on foundation
type, bearing capacity, settlement
estimation, identification of environmental
problem and pertinent solution.

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1. Determination of the nature of the deposits of
soil, depth and thickness of the various soil
strata and their extent in the horizontal
direction,
2. The location and fluctuations of GWT,
3. Obtaining soil and rock samples from the
various strata,
4. Determination of the engineering properties of
the soil and rock strata that affect the
performance of the structure, and
5. Determination of the in-situ properties by
performing field tests.

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i. Selection of alternative construction sites or the
choice of the most economical sites.
ii. Selection of types and depth of foundation suitable
for a given structure.
iii. Establishing construction methods for changing
subsoil conditions.
iv. Evaluating the load-bearing capacity of foundations.
v. Determining potential foundation problems (e.g.,
expansive soil, collapsible soil, sanitary landfill, and
so on).
vi. Establishing the probable settlement of a structure.
vii. Predicting the lateral earth pressures.
viii. Evaluation of the safety of existing structure.
ix. Location and selection of construction materials.
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The soil exploration should provide the following
data: -
 Soil parameters and properties of different layers
(e.g. for classification, bearing capacity or
settlement calculation)
 Thickness of soil layers and depth to bedrock
(stratification of soil)
 Location of ground water level

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The purpose of soil investigation program is to
study the engineering properties of the soil and
to determine design parameters.
The cost of inadequate data by neglecting site
investigation is considerably more than the
cost of investigation.
 The planning of an exploration program depends
upon
 The nature of soil strata
 The type of structure
 The importance of structure

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 Planning: Maximize information and minimize
cost!
 International practice shows soil exploration can
cost 0.5 to 1% of total project cost.
 A conservative design tending to save on
exploration cost does not guarantee, safety and
even economy.
 Erratic soil does not necessarily imply need
for extensive boring. The aim in this case
should be establishment of general picture of
stratification with conservative design
ultimately.
 Maximize Use of Available information

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I. Assembly available information on
 tentative layout, function, special features,
etc. This may involve consulting different maps
and preliminary drawings
 type and use of the structure
 general topography
 geological character of the site
 II. Reconnaissance/Appraisal: - involves walk
over site to reveal cracks, sags, sticking doors
& windows, etc.; type of existing structures;
gully trenches; rock outcrops; any other
relevant information.
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III. Preliminary site investigation: - few borings
to establish general formation; one or a few
deep boreholes to competent strata if upper
soil is loose;
 data should suffice for preliminary design &
identification of construction method (sheeting,
diaphragm wall, pile wall, tiebacks, etc.); suitability
of site & economy established
IV. Detailed site investigation: - For complex
projects or where the soil is of poor quality
and/or erratic, a more detailed investigation may
be undertaken. This may involve sinking several
boreholes, taking soil samples for laboratory
investigations, conducting sounding and other
field tests.

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 Purpose of detailed investigation is to refine
design and decide on any special construction
methods; investigation extent depends on
preliminary data; generally, it involves more
investigation with one or more boreholes to
competent rock.

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 Depending on the function, size, and
importance of the structure, one or more of
the following exploration methods can be
employed
 Direct methods/Open pits, trial pits and/or
trenches
 Semi direct methods-Sinking boreholes and
sampling
Indirect methods
 Field tests -sounding or penetration tests
 Laboratory tests
 Geophysical investigation
 Geological investigation 27
 Advantages
 Cheap,
 fast,
 enable direct visual inspection
 Good samples can be extracted
 Disadvantages
 Shallow investigation

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 Boring has two phases:
i. Advancing hole and
ii. Sampling.
 Many techniques available: Dependent on
material encountered and purpose.
 Advancing techniques: Auger boring,
wash boring, percussion drilling, rotary
drilling, continuous sampling, displacement
method, etc.
 Sampling techniques: Spiral, bucket,
hollow-stem augers, solid- and split-spoon
samplers, Shelby-tube (thin wall), stationary
piston, single- and double tube rock core
barrels.
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Two Major Problems: Caving of wall &
heaving of bottom.
Heaving: occurs in all holes due to stress
release; serious below GWT due to seepage;
use of drilling fluid maintained above GWT
helps.
Caving: serious in cohesionless deposits and
below GWT; also in jointed rock below GWT
depending on degree of weathering at the
joints; thus, use of casings or drive pipes
below GWT is common.

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 Hand operated augers - up-to depth of ≤10

Helical Auger post hole auger

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 Need power for rotation & pressure;
 Varying size and capacity in two major
categories: flight augers (5 to 120cm ) &
bucket-type augers (30 to 240cm ).
 Bucket-type augers: Open top; slotted &
teethed bottom; the big sizes can
accommodate an inspector.
 Flight augers: Single-flight, double-flight,

high spiral, conveyor- or continuous-flight,

and hollow-stem augers;
 attaching additional height of spiral in the
single- and double-flight augers is common
to save time;
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 Conveyor-flight auger: Deep penetration
can be attained – up to 30m;
Mixing up of material is a disadvantage.
 Hollow-stem augers: Internal diameter

ranges between 7cm and 16 cm; consists

of a steel tube with spiral blades; also
suitable for loose deposits below GWT;
 Tube serves as casing; high quality

samples can be retrieved;

 SPT can be conducted.

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Penetration 3 to 7m
a) single-flight earth auger;
b) double flight earth-rock auger;
c) double-flight rock auger;
d) high spiral auger
Penetration at least 30m (up to 100m)
a) Conveyor flight auger
b) Bucket auger
c) Hollow-stem auger

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 hole is advanced to a short depth,
 casing pipe is driven in the ground to prevent
the sides of the bore hole from caving in,
 Boring is continued by using chopping bit
 Water is forced under pressure through the
drill rod which is alternatively raised and
dropped, and also rotated
 Bit is replaced by sampler during sampling.
 Due to its jetting and chopping action soil is
loosened.
 The loosened soil is forced up-to the ground
surface in the form of soil water slurry
 Depth of boring could be up to 60m or more
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 Power operated.
 Common in drilling water wells, boring in
rocks and hard soil.
 Involves alternate raising & dropping of
heavy drilling tools, pouring of water and
periodical bailing or pumping of slurry; type
of bit depends on material encountered.
 Advantageous in coarse granular deposits
with boulders and in cavernous limestone.
 A major disadvantage: the heavy blows can
disturb soil to a significant depth; difficult
to detect thin layers.
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 Truck-
mounted
Percussion
drilling rig

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 Power operated.
 Uses rotation & pressure for advancement.
 Employed only when deep bore holes are
required in difficult formations with
boulders and fractured rock or water
logged sand.
 Bentonite mud/slurry or casing necessary if
caving is a problem.
 Various drill heads may be employed: auger
heads; grinding heads; coring bits; etc
 undisturbed samples can be obtained
 Maximum depth of drilling is 80 to 150m.
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Two types of soil samples
1. Disturbed but representative:
 Structure could be lost but should contain
all constituents in proper proportion;
 Employed for identification, performing
classification tests such as sieve analysis,
Atterberg limits, compaction tests and
locating borrow materials
2. Undisturbed samples:
 High care exercised to preserve in-situ
structure of soil
 Area ratio may not exceed 13%
For shearing resistance and stress-deformation
characteristics of a deposit (cohesive soils)
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Area ratio, Ar:  o is outer diameter
o 2  i 2
Ar   100%  i is inner diameter
i 2

 represents the amount of soil that is displaced

when a sampler is forced into the ground. The area
ratio should be kept as low as possible.
 For stiff formation, ar > 20%
 For soft soil, ar, ≤ 10% or less

Reading Assignment
 Auger boring
 Wash boring
 Percussion drilling
 Rotary drilling
Boring methods 44
It is virtually impossible to obtain totally
undisturbed samples. Sample disturbance
may be reduced by using an appropriate
type of sample tube.

a good sampler is the one, which is able to

collect as less undisturbed soil samples as
possible

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 commonly used to obtain relatively undisturbed
samples of cohesive soils for strength and
consolidation testing

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 basically a thin-wall tube sampler with a piston,
rod, and a modified sampler head
 particularly useful for sampling soft soils where
sample recovery is often difficult although it can
also be used in stiff soils
 Hydraulically driven samplers

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Summary of common sampling methods

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Useful in providing reliable data for calculating
ultimate bearing capacity of soils, stability and
settlement behavior of foundation, and for
determining physical characteristics of soils.
The common laboratory tests that concern the
foundation engineers are;

 Grain size analysis

 Direct shear test
 Atterberg limits
 Tri-axial compression test
 Natural moisture content
 Consolidation test
 Unit weight
 Compaction test
 Unconfined compression
 Chemical analysis
test
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Prepare a short summary on the above
mentioned soil lab tests including the
 Purpose
 Instrument/equipment
 Procedure

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Importance of groundwater level measurement:
 Groundwater level is an indicative of type of soil
and its permeability
 In waterlogged areas, dewatering is required for
soil exploration. So measurement of groundwater
level enables the geotechnical engineer- in-
charge to decide about the type of dewatering
units required for the site.
 Groundwater level affects many important phases
in the design and construction of foundation. So it
must be measured with accuracy in each project.

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The depth to which boreholes should be sunk is
governed by the depth of soil affected by
foundation bearing pressures.
According to Tomlinson;
Widely spaced pad foundation= 1.5B
Raft foundation=1.5B
Closely spaced Strip foundation=1.5W
Group of pile foundation=1.5B (width of pile
group)
Pile foundation on rock>3m
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Depth of boring for buildings in shallow
foundation (Sowers, 1979)

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 Spacing of boreholes according to Teng
Distance between boring Minimum
Project (m) number of

Horizontal stratification of boring for each

soil structure

Uniform Average Erratic

Multi-story building 45 30 15 4
One or two story building 60 30 15 3
Bridge piers, abutments, - 30 7.5 1 or 2 for each
television towers, etc foundation
unit
Highways 300 150 30
Borrow pits (for compacted 150- 60- 15-30
fill) 300 150 57
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Most Projects are either of:
1. Isolated small structures:
pylons, radio masts,
small houses (one borehole
may be sufficient)
2. Compact projects: buildings,
dams, bridges,
small landslips (require at least
four boreholes;
deep and closely spaced)
3. Extended Projects: motorways,
railways, reservoirs,
land reclamation schemes
(shallower more widely
spaced boreholes)
 The main problem associated with the laboratory
tests of soils are disturbance during sampling and
transportation so to over come this problems
several in-situ test developed.
 These tests are valuable means of determining the
relative densities; shear strengths and bearing
capacities of soils directly without disturbing
effects of boring and sampling.
The most commonly used field tests are
 Penetration or sounding tests
 Vane shear test
 Plate loading test
 Pile loading test
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 Penetration tests are the most useful tests.
 They are conducted mainly to get information on
the relative density of soils with little or no
cohesion.
 relative density of a soil stratum is directly
proportional to the resistance of the soil against
the penetration.
 correlations between values of penetration
resistance versus angle of internal friction (),
bearing pressure, density and modulus of
compressibility have been developed.

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Penetration tests are classified as
 static and
 dynamic penetration tests
Static Penetration Tests
1. Swedish Weight Sounding Test:
This method of testing is widely used here in
Ethiopia.
The test consists of weights: 5,10,10, 25,25, and
25kgs(=100 kg), screw point, driving rod ( 20
to 22 mm), made up of 100cm parts, and a
rotating handle.

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 The tip of the road is placed on the ground
 5 kg load is applied to the road and checks the
penetration, if no penetration the load is
increased in the order of 15 , 25, 50, 75, 100 kg
respectively.
 If the road does not penetrate the ground even
after 100 kg load, the handle continues to be
rotated. The number of half turns needed to
make penetrate 25 cm is recorded.
 If the penetration after 25 half-turns is less than
5cm the rod is unloaded and driven down by a 5
to 6kg hammer.

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 The correlation between density of frictional
soils and consistency of cohesive soils and ht/m
(half-turns per meter) are as given below.
Frictional Soils (density) Density (kN/m3)
Very loose <50ht/m 11-
16
Loose 50 -150ht/m 14.5 -
18.5
Medium 150 - 300ht/m 17.5 -
21
Dense 300 - 500ht/m 17.5 -
22.5
Very dense > 500ht/m 21 - 6524
Cohesive Soils (density)
Density (kN/m3)
Soft 0 ht/m 16 –19
Firm 0 – 100 ht/m 17.5 – 21
Stiff 100-200 ht/m 19 – 22.5
Very stiff 200 - 500 ht/m 19 - 22.5
Hard >500 ht/m 19 – 22.5

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Example
1. Number of ht/m in non cohesive soils =250
Soil unit weight 18 kN/m3

2. Number of ht/m in cohesive soils =160

Soil unit weight 19.5 kN/m3

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 The test consists of a cone (apex angle 600,
overall diameter 35.7mm, end area 10cm2, rods
(⅝” ), casing pipe ( ¾”).
 The rod is pushed hydraulically into the ground
at a rate of 10mm/sec.
 The pressure exerted on the rod is measured
with a proving ring, manometer or a strain
gauge.
 Readings are usually taken every 20cm. From
this test point resistance and skin frictional
resistance can be determined separately.
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The correlation between the cone (point) resistance
and relative density of frictional soils are given
below

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According to Meyerhof:
N = ¼ (Ckd)
Where
N = Standard penetration number
Ckd = Static Cone resistance (kg/cm2 )

For sand, modulus of compressibility (Es) can be

estimated from cone resistance from the
following relationship.

ES =3/2( Ckd)

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Point resistance of a soil to Static cone
penetration test =12000kN/m3
N=
Es=

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 1) Standard Penetration Test (SPT):
 This is the most common field/insitu test
 The test is especially suited for cohesionless
soils as a correlation has been established
between the SPT value and the angle of
internal friction of the soil
 measures the resistance of the soil to
dynamic penetration by a 50mm to 150mm
diameter split spoon sampler which is
driven into the soil at the at desired depth.

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 The sampler is attached to drill rods
and the dynamic driving force is a
63.5kg mass falling through a height of
76cm onto the top of the rod.
 The sampler is initially driven 15cm
below the bottom of the borehole.
 It is then further driven 30cm.
 The number of blows required to drive
the last 30cm is termed as the standard
penetration value denoted by N

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Standard penetration test (SPT) equipment
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Correlation between Number of blows (N),
Angle of Internal Friction(Ø) and Relative
Density of Frictional Soils(Terzaghi and
Peck)

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Correlation between Number of blows (N),
Unconfined Compressive Strength and
Consistency of Cohesive Soils. (Terzaghi
and Peck).

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I. When SPT is made in fine saturated sands,
saturated silty sands, or saturated silts,
correction is usually made for possible
build up of pore water pressure. The SPT
values, greater than 15 are modified as
follows
N = 15 + ½ (N’ –15)
Suggested by Terzaghi and peck (1948)
where N= corrected SPT value
N’= Observed SPT value

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II. The other type of correction is known as
correction for overburden pressure. This
correction is applied only to cohesionless soils
(dry, moist or wet). The correction suggested
by Gibbs and Holtz and widely used is as
follows.

o’ = effective overburden pressure in kN/m2

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Terzaghi and Peck also give the following correlation
between SPT value, Dr, and φ:
Condition N Dr Ø
Very loose 0–4 0 – 15% < 28°
Loose 4 – 10 15 – 35% 28° – 30°
Medium 10 – 30 35 – 65% 30° – 36°
Dense 30 – 50 65 – 85% 36° – 42°
Very dense > 50 > 85 % > 42°
For clays the following data are given:
Consistency N Qu(kN/m2)
Very soft 0-2 <25
Soft 2-4 25-50
50-100Medium 4-8 50-100
Stiff100 8-15 100-200
Very stiff 15-30 200-400
Hard >30 >400
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2) Dynamic Cone Penetration Test
used to determine the relative resistance offered by
the different soil layers.
 The cone is fixed to the bottom of a rod by
pushed fit.
 The cone is driven into the ground in the same
way as a SPT is performed.
 The number of blows required to penetrate 30
cms depth is called as Nc value.
 In the case of dynamic cone penetration test no
borehole is used.
 The maximum depth suggested for this test is
about 6 m.

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To judge the consistency of soil from Nc values, the
general practice is to convert Nc to N values of SPT

Nc = N/C
where
N = blow count for SPT
Nc = blow count for dynamic cone
C = Constant, lies between 0.8 and 1.2 when
bentonite is used.
Nc= 1.5N for depths up to 3m
Nc= 1.75N for depths between 3m and 6m

Nc Values need to be corrected for overburden pressure

in cohesionless soils like SPT
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 This test is useful in determining the
in-place shear strength of very soft
and sensitive clays, which lose a large
part of their strength when even
slightly disturbed by the sampling
operation.
 The strength parameter obtained is
undrained shear strength, Cu.

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A hole is drilled to the desired depth
 The vane is carefully pushed into the soil.
 A torque necessary to shear the cylinder of
soil defined by the blades of the vane is
applied by rotating the arm of the apparatus
with a constant speed of 0.5 degree/sec.
 The maximum torque is then measured from
which the shearing strength is determined.

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From the measured maximum torque one may
estimate the shearing resistance of the tested
clay from the following formula

 = shear strength (N/mm2)

Since for quick condition  = Cu, one ultimately

arrived the in-situ value of cohesion

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Vane Shear Test
T

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In this test a gradually increasing static
load is applied to the soil through a
steel plate, and readings of the
settlement and applied load are
recorded, from which a relationship
between bearing pressure and
settlement for the soil can be obtained.

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 Bearing capacity of non-cohesive soil is determined
from settlement consideration.

If the maximum permissible settlement, S, of a footing of width

Bf is given, the settlement, Sp, of a plate of width Bp under the
same intensity of loading is given by

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The settlement of footing in clay is normally
determined from principles of consolidation.
However from plate load test, the
approximate settlement of footing of width B
can be determined using the following
expression

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 Plate loading test is of short duration. Hence
consolidation settlement does not fully occur during
the test.
 For settlement consideration, its use is restricted to
sandy soils, and to partially saturated or rather
unsaturated clayey soils.
 Plate loading test can give very misleading
information of the soil is not homogeneous within
the effective depth (depth of stress influence) of
the prototype foundation.
 Plate loading test should not recommended in soils
which are not homogeneous at least to depth of 1½
to 2 times the width of the prototype foundation

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 This is the most reliable means for
determining the load carrying capacity
of a pile.
 The load arrangement and testing
procedure are more or less similar to
the plate-loading test.
 From the results of this test the
allowable bearing capacity and load-
settlement relationship of a group of
friction piles can be estimated.
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 Comprise the seismic and resistivity methods.
 These methods are usually limited to establishing
location of bedrock underlying softer material
(by seismic method)
 or locating gravel or sand deposits (by resistivity
method).
 The seismic method is based on the fact that
sound waves travel faster through rocks than
through soils. The resistivity method makes use
of the fact some soils (e.g. soft clays) have low
electrical resistivity than others (e.g. sand or
gravel).
 These methods are normally employed as
preliminary or supplementary to other methods
of exploration.
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Data presentation
The results of borings, samplings, penetration
tests and laboratory tests of a site are usually
plotted graphically on a sheet of drawing
paper.
The graphical presentation should include.
 A plot plan, showing the location of all
boreholes, test pits, etc and their
identification number.
 A separate plot, showing the soil profile as
established from the drillings or test pits
records.
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 Soil profiles along given lines in the ground
surface, showing the boundaries between
identifiable soil layers, variation of thickness of
firm bottom layer, thickness of soft clay layers
etc.
 The penetration number, the unconfined
compression strength, Atterberg limits, natural
moisture content, and other appropriate
laboratory data may be shown on each boring
on the soil profile.
 The location of ground water table should also
be shown on the soil profile.

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A soil exploration report should contain all
available data from bore holes, test pits, field
and laboratory tests and site observation.
Most reports have the following contents.
1. Introduction: - Purpose, scope of
investigation, type of investigation carried
out.
2. General description of the site: - general
configuration and surface features of the
site.
3. General geology of the area.
4. Description of soil conditions found in bore
holes (and test pits)
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1. Laboratory test results.
2. Discussion of results of investigation in
relation to foundation design and
constructions.
3. Conclusion: - recommendations on the type
and depth of foundations, allowable bearing
pressure and methods of construction.

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Refer to a project (anywhere) and
prepare/revise a soil
investigation/exploration report following
the above mentioned standards.

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 Foundation is an interfacing component of a
structure which is used to support and
transfer the super structure load and its self
weight to the sub soil
 It includes the portion of the structure below
ground level and other artificial
arrangements in the form of concrete block,
grillage, raft, piles etc
 The foundation is always constructed below
ground level so as to increase the lateral
stability of the structure.

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Foundation should fulfill the following
objectives:
 To distribute the load of the structure over a
large bearing area so as to bring intensity of
loading within the safe bearing capacity of the
soil lying underneath.
 To load the bearing surface at a uniform rate
so as to avoid unequal settlement.
 Prevent the lateral movement of the
supporting structure.
 To Increase structural stability of the structure
 To secure a level and firm bed for building
operations. 100
 Foundations can be broadly classified into
the following two categories
 Shallow foundations
 Deep foundations

Shallow foundations are further classified

into the following types: -
 Spread or Isolated footings
 Combined footings
 Cantilever/strap footings
 Continuous or wall footings
 Raft or mat foundations 101
 most economical
 used to support individual column(ordinary
buildings)
 The footings may be rectangular, square or
circular in shape.
 May be stepped type, simple type or slope
type, having projections in the base concrete.
 To support heavy loads, reinforcement is also
provided at the base. The reinforcement
provided is in the form of steel bars and is
placed in both directions.

102
103
Assignment:
When does Isolated Spread Footings are economical?
104
 Itsupports two or sometimes three column in
a row.
 used when property lines, equipment
locations, column spacing or other
considerations limit the footing clearance at
the column locations.
 They can be rectangular in shape if both the
columns carry equal loads, or can be
trapezoidal if there is a space limitation and
they carry unequal loads.
 Generally they are constructed of reinforced
concrete.
105
Assignment:
When does combined Footings are economical?
106
 It consists of two individual footings connected
by a beam called a strap, the so called strap
footing.
 Cantilever footing may be used where the
distance between the columns is so great that a
trapezoidal combined footing becomes quite
narrow, with resulting high bending moments.
 reasons for considering or choosing strap footing
is similar to the combined footing
 Differ from combined by; In strap footing, the
footings under the columns are built individually
and connected by strap beam

107
108
109
 In this type of footing a single continuous
reinforced concrete slab is provided as foundation
of wall and three or more columns in a row. This
type of footing is suitable at locations liable to
earthquake activities. This also prevents
differential settlement in the structure.

110
Assignment:
When does wall/strip Footings are economical?
111
A raft or mat is a combined footing that covers
the entire area beneath a structure and supports
all the columns. When the allowable soil pressure
is low or the structure loads are heavy, the use of
spread footings would cover more than one-half of
the area, and it may prove more economical to
use raft foundation.
 It is also used where the soil mass contains
compressible layers so that the differential
settlement would be difficult to control the raft
tends to bridge over the erratic deposits and
eliminates the differential settlement

112
113
114
 When the upper ground stratum at a site is weak
and unable to carry the load even by a raft
foundation, then eventually shallow foundation
has to be ruled out, and a deep foundation,
taken to an available firm stratum, is adopted.
 Deep foundation may be in the form of Piles,
piers and Wells or Caissons
 Pile foundation, a kind of deep foundation, is
actually a slender column or long cylinder made
of materials such as concrete or steel which are
used to support the structure and transfer the
load at desired depth either by end bearing or
skin friction
 ..\Deep Foundations\Chapter 1- Pile foundation
GU.ppt
 ..\Deep Foundations\chapter 2 Introduction to pier
Caissons and cofferdam Final.pptx
115
A pile is relatively a small diameter shaft,
which is used to transmit the loads to deeper
soil layers capable of supporting the loads.
 A well on the other hand is a large diameter
circular body, usually, sunk into the ground,
by removing the ground soil and it is usually
adopted for structures across rivers streams,
where heavy scouring is involved, such as for
supporting the piers of a road or a railway
bridge, or some monumental building.

116
117
118
119
The usual approach to a normal foundation-
engineering problem is
1. To prepare a plan of the base of the
structure showing the various columns, load-
bearing walls with estimated loads, including
dead load, live load, moments and torques
coming into the foundation units.
2. To study the tentative allowable bearing
pressures allocated for the various strata
below the ground level, as given by the soil
investigation report.

120
3. To determine the required foundation depth.
This may be the minimum depth based on soil
strength or structural requirement
considerations.
4. To compute the dimensions of the foundation
based on the given loading and allowable bearing
pressure.
5. To estimate the total and differential
settlements of the structure. If these are
excessive the bearing pressure will have to be
reduced or the foundation taken to a deeper and
less compressible stratum or the structure will
have to be founded on piles or other special
measures taken

121
Foundations should be so designed that it
must satisfactorily meet building
requirements.
 a) Dead load
 b) Live load
 c) Wind load
 d) Earth-quake load
 e)Dynamic load( Man made and
Natural)
122
 Unequal settlement of sub-soil & masonry.
 Lateral movement of sub-soil.
 Sub-soil moisture movement.
 Lateral pressure on the walls.
 Weathering of sub-soil due to trees and
shrubs.
 Atmospheric actions.
 Design mistake.

123
The selection of a particular type of foundation is
often based on a number of factors
 (Economic feasibility) Cost of foundation in
comparison with the cost of the superstructure
 Function of the structure
 Life of the structure
 Loads it must carry
 Subsurface conditions
 Type of construction materials to be used
 Water table level
 Type of adjoining structure
 Location of building

124
Having these points in mind one should apply
the following steps in order to arrive at a
decision.
 Obtain at least approximate information
concerning the nature of the superstructure
and the loads to be transmitted to the
foundation
 Determine the subsurface condition in a
general way.
 Consider each of the usual types of
foundations in order to judge whether or not

125
a. They could be constructed under existing
conditions.
b. They are capable of carrying the required
load.
c. They experience serious differential
settlements.

126
The types that are found to be unsuitable
should then be eliminated.
 Undertake a detailed study of the most
promising types. Such a study may require
additional information on loads and
subsurface conditions.
 Determine the approximate size of footing
or the approximate length and number of
piles required

127
 Prepare an estimate for the cost of each
promising type of foundation.
 Select the type that represents the most
acceptable compromise between
performance and cost.

128
Shallow foundations are structural members
that are used to transfer safely to the ground
the dead load of the superstructure and all
external forces acting upon it.

129
Design of shallow foundations involves
 Sizing of the foundation to the allowable
bearing capacity of the soil, settlement and
 structural design to accommodate moment and
shear on the foundation
The design of shallow foundations is based on the
assumption that they are rigid so that the
variation of pressure under the foundations will
be linear (rigid method)

130
The requirements in geotechnical design of
foundations are:
 The pressure on the soil should not exceed
the bearing capacity of the soil.
 The settlement of the structure should be
within the permissible limits. Further there
should be no differential settlement.
 Economic feasibility

131
In order to proportion shallow foundations one
should either know the,
 presumptive allowable soil pressure (EBCS 7)
 appropriate strength parameters of the soil (
and C) . Those values are used to determine soil
bearing capacity.

132
The usual approach is
 To prepare a plan of the base of the structure
showing the various columns loads
 To study the tentative allowable bearing pressures
 To determine the required foundation depth.
 To compute the dimensions of the foundation
based on the given loading and allowable bearing
pressure.
 To estimate the total and differential settlements of
the structure.

133
The bearing capacity of soil can be read from
codes (presumptive value) or estimated
from bearing capacity equations

134
two states of loading are considered in foundation
loads
 the initial or instantaneous loading condition
 the final or long- term loading condition.

135
 Theultimate load that may be applied on a
foundation with sides a and b may be
determined from the following equation

Vult = A*qult

136
137
The actual sustained load on the footing may
be related to the ultimate load
Vult =F.SP
Where F.S = factor of safety
P = actual sustained load on the
foundation

138
From which it follows;

139
 The ultimate bearing capacity, qult , may be
determined from the following equation
(Meyerhof’s)
qult = CNcScdcic+ ½ b’  N Sd i + q Nq Sqdqiq

Or from presumptive values

140
Where
 qult = Ultimate bearing capacity of footing,
 C = Cohesion,
 q = Effective surcharge at the base level of
the footing.
  = effective unit weight of soil
 Nc, Nq, N = Bearing capacity factors
 Sc, Sq ,S = Shape factors
 dc ,dq, d = Depth factors
 ic, iq, i , = Inclination factors

141
Example 1 : Compute the allowable bearing
pressure using the Terzaghi equation for the
footing and soil parameters shown below .
Use a safety factor of 3 to obtain qa.
Compare this with the value obtained from
using the Eq.
The soil data are obtained from a series of
undrained triaxial tests. Is the soil
saturated?

142
143
144
145
Example 2: A footing load test made produced the
following data:
D = 0.5 m B = 0.5 m L = 2.0 m
y' = 9.31 kN/m3 angle of internal friction = 47°
Cohesion c = 0 Pult = 1863 kN (measured)
Required. Compute the ultimate bearing
capacity by both Hansen and Meyerhof
equations and compare these values with the
measured value.

146
 Example 3: Given. A series of unconfined
compression tests in the zone of interest
(from SPT samples) from a boring-log give an
average qu = 200 kPa. Estimate the allowable
bearing capacity for square footings located
at somewhat uncertain depths and B
dimensions unknown using both the
Meyerhof and Terzaghi bearing-capacity
equations. Use safety factor SF = 3.0.

147
the last stage in the design of foundations is the
structural design. One should check the adequacy
of the thickness of the footing and provide the
necessary reinforcement to withstand;
 punching shear,
 diagonal tension (wide beam shear),
 bending moment and
 bond stress. (development stress)
EBCS-2 provides details on reinforcement required
for shear

148
The punching shear force is given by
Vup = 0.25fctd k1k2 u d (MN)……(EBCS-2)
where k1 = ( 1+50e) ≤ 2.0
K2 = 1.6 – d ≥ 1.0 ( d in meters)
For members where more than 50 % of the bottom
reinforcement is curtailed ,k2=1

149
 Example: Given R.C. column size 30X50 cm with
422.
d= 0.4 m, fyk = 300MPa fyd = 300/1.15 =
260.87 MPa
C25 fck= 20MPafctk = 1.5 MPa,
Punching shear?

150
 Vud = 0.25fctd k1k2 bwd (MN)
where k1 = ( 1+50) ≤ 2.0
K2 = 1.6 – d ≥ 1.0 ( d in meters)
For members where more than 50% of the
bottom reinforcement is c urtailed , k2=1

151
152
Depth of footing
minimum depth of footing should be 50cm (EBCS-7)
 Footings should be carried below
 zone of high volume change due to moisture
fluctuation
 top (organic) soil
 peat and muck
 unconsolidated (or fill) material

153
154
 2( a’ +3d + b’+ 3d) dVup
Where Vup = punching shear resistance
The net force on the perimeter due to the soil
pressure would be
From equilibrium consideration,
2( a’ +3d + b’+ 3d) dVup =

155
Simplifying,
All the quantities except “d” are known and d
can be solved

156
157
The shear forces are calculated along the
plane C-C and D-D
V C-C = (b/2 –d - b’/2) ault
V D-D = (a/2 –d - a’/2) bult

158
The actual shear stress is then calculated
 These calculated actual shear stresses
should be compared with diagonal shear
resistance.

159
 According
to EBCS 2-1995, the critical section
for moment shall be taken as follows:
 At the face of column, pedestal or wall for
footings supporting a concrete pedestal or wall
 Halfway between middle and edge of wall, for
footings supporting a masonry wall
 Halfway between face of column and edge of
steel base for footings supporting a column with
base plates.

160
161
Where  is the ratio of long side to short side
of footing (a/b).

162
 Development length
 The reinforcement bars must extend a sufficient
distance into the concrete to develop proper
anchorage. This distance is called the
development length. The necessary
development length may be calculated using
the following equation.

163
The thickness of footing above bottom
reinforcement shall not be less than 150mm
for footing on soil, nor 300mm for footing on
piles.
Concrete cover to reinforcement (According
to EBCS2-1995)

 Concrete cast directly against the earth, the

minimum cover should be greater than 75mm
 Concrete cast against prepared ground (including
blinding) the minimum cover should be greater
than 40mm.

164
The clear horizontal and vertical distance
between bars shall be at least equal to the
largest of the following values: (EBCS2-1995)
 20mm
 the diameter of the largest bar
 the maximum size of the aggregate plus 5mm

The spacing between main bars for slabs shall

not exceed the smaller of 2h (height of
thickness) or 350mm
The spacing between secondary bars shall not
exceed 400mm
165
1. Determine the dimensions of a square footing
necessary to sustain an axial column load of
850kN as shown in Fig. below, if
a) an allowable presumptive bearing pressure of
150kN/m2 is used.
b) Cu = 40 kN/m2 ; C’ = 7.5 kN/m2 ; ’ =22.50

166
167
 Given R.C. column size 30X50 cm with 422.
 P = 1500kN
 M = 375 kN-m
 Ultimate soil bearing pressure = 400kPa
 fyk = 300MPa fyd = 300/1.15 = 260.87 MPa
 C25 fck= 20MPafctk = 1.5 MPa,
Required:- Design of rectangular R.C. footing

168
169
 Combined Footing

Rectangular Combined footing

 Area of use :- Used to carry two or more
columns in one row
 -used to carry two columns when X’ =
L’/2, X’ > L’/2,
 X’= distance to center of gravity of
column load
 L’= distance between the columns (edge
to edge)

170
171
 Design Assumptions :-
 footing is infinitely rigid
 Linear soil pressure distribution under footing
 Analysis: - In the long direction, it is analyzed as a
continuous beam
In the short direction, it is analyzed as spread footing
with effective widths at exterior and interior
columns being a’ +d/2 and a’ +d respectively

172
173
Design Procedure
 Determine footing length, L=2X’
 Determine footing width from the allowable
soil bearing capacity
 Draw SFD and BMD
 Determine the depth of footing
 Calculate steel reinforcement

174
 Areaof use:- used in case where exterior column
carries largest load and X’ < L’/2 but X’ > L’/3

175
a) Design Assumptions :-
 footing is infinitely rigid
 Linear soil pressure distribution under
footing
b) Analysis: - In the long direction, it is
analyzed as a continuous beam
 In the short direction, it is analyzed as
spread footing similar to that of rectangular
combined footing.

176
c) Design procedure
 Determine footing area from the allowable
soil bearing capacity
 Determine B2 and B1
 Draw SFD and BMD
 Determine the depth of footing
 Calculate steel reinforcement

177
 Strap or Cantilever Footings

 Strap footings are used as alternatives to combined

footings when the cost of combined footings is
relatively high.
 Essentially a strap footing consists of a rigid beam
connecting two pads (footings) to transmit
unbalanced shear and moment from the statically
unbalanced footing to the second footing.

178
Design Assumptions
 - strap is infinitely rigid
 - strap is a pure flexural member and does
not take soil reaction. (To confirm with this,
strap is constructed slightly above soil or soil
under strap is loosened).

179
180
 Assume a1 and establish the eccentricity, e
of the soil reaction force R1.
 Determine the magnitude of the soil
reaction force by taking moments about R2.
 c) Determine the reaction R2 from
equilibrium consideration
 Determine sizes of footings using known
values of R1, R2 and stress all.

181
 Determine and draw shear force and bending
moment diagrams along the length of the footings.
 Select depths of footings for shear requirement.
 Select steel reinforcement for bending
requirement.
 In short direction, the footings analyzed as spread
footing subject to uniform soil pressure.
 Design strap as flexural member for the shear and
moment obtained above.

182
 Mat or raft foundation is a large concrete
slab supporting several columns in two or
more rows.
 It is used where;
 the supporting soil has low bearing capacity.
 to bridge over irregularities of the soil and
the average settlement does not approach
the extreme values of isolated footings.
 for supporting structures that are sensitive to
differential settlement.

183
Design Assumptions
 - mat is infinitely rigid
 - planner soil pressure distribution under mat
Design Procedure
i) Determine the line of action of the resultant of
all the loads acting on the mat
ii) Determine the contact pressure distribution as
under
 a) If the resultant passes through the center of
gravity of the mat, the contact pressure is given
by

 b) If the resultant has an eccentricity of ex and

ey in the x and y direction
184
c) Divide the slab mat into strips in x and y
directions. Each strip is assumed to act as
independent beam subjected to the contact
pressure and the columns loads.
d) Determine the modified column loads
e) Draw the shear force and bending moment
diagrams for each strip.
f) Select depth of mat for shear requirement
g) Select steel reinforcement for moment
requirement

185
Deep foundations—piles, drilled piers, or
drilled caissons. Lp/B > 4+
 Piles are structural members of timber,
concrete, and/or steel that are used to
transmit surface loads to lower levels in the
soil mass.
 This transfer may be by vertical distribution
of the load along the pile shaft or a direct
application of load to a lower stratum
through the pile point.

186
A vertical distribution of the load is made
using a friction (or floating) pile and a direct
load application is made by a point, or end-
bearing, pile. This distinction is purely one
of convenience since all piles carry load as a
combination of side resistance and point
bearing

187
 To carry the superstructure loads into or through a soil
stratum. Both vertical and lateral loads may be
involved.
 To resist uplift, or overturning, forces, such as for
basement mats below the water table or to support
tower legs subjected to overturning from lateral loads
such as wind.
 To compact loose, cohesionless deposits through a
combination of pile volume displacement and driving
vibrations. These piles may be later pulled.
 To control settlements when spread footings or a mat is
on a marginal soil or is underlain by a highly
compressible stratum.

188
 To stiffen the soil beneath machine foundations
to control both amplitudes of vibration and the
natural frequency of the system.
 As an additional safety factor beneath bridge
abutments and/or piers, particularly if scour is a
potential problem.
 In offshore construction to transmit loads above
the water surface through the water and into the
underlying soil. This case is one in which
partially embedded piling is subjected to vertical
(and buckling) as well as lateral loads.

189
190
1. Driving with a steady succession of blows
on the top of the pile using a pile hammer.
This produces both considerable noise and
local vibrations.
2. Driving using a vibratory device attached to
the top of the pile. This method is usually
relatively quiet, and driving vibrations may
not be excessive. The method is more
applicable in deposits with little cohesion.

191
3. Jacking the pile. This technique is more
applicable for short stiff members.
4. Drilling a hole and either inserting a pile
into it or, more commonly, filling the cavity
with concrete, which produces a pile upon
hardening.

192
193
194
195
196
197
198
 Retainingwalls are structures used to
provide stability of earth or other material
where conditions disallow the mass to
assume its natural slope.

199
200