Research methods and tools in Animal and

Range Sciences

Animal and Range science

Dilla university
November 2017

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1. Introduction
 1.1.Aim and scope of the course
 In this course, we will discuss/learn a set of theories/applications and sets of
guidelines for the use of research methods in general and its applicability to
agricultural sciences in particular.

 Natural science investigation is based ultimately upon the researcher’s

assumptions about the interactions of biotic and abiotic factors and social
problems.

 These assumptions guide his/her entire research operation from the selection
of a problem for investigation to the analysis of data and the interpretation of
the results.

 They influence the research methods he/she employs and the type of data
thus obtained. Gebrewahd Amha Abesha
 This course provides guidelines, lessons and examples on :

 how to identify researchable problems, expose them to the theory of

sampling under different premises of experimentation and organize (plan)
experiments

 how to prepare proposals, application of commonly used statistical

analysis, interpretation of results as well as the principle behind scientific
report writing and presentation.

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Sources of knowledge

 The following entities are frequently listed as sources of

knowledge to human such as
 Tradition,
 Authority,
 Emotions,
 Personal Experience,
 Reasoning
 Scientific Research

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 Reasoning
 Deduction is the process of deriving specific expectations from general
principles through syllogistic reasoning developed by Aristotle and the ancient
Greeks
 Syllogism is a form of reasoning, deductive argument, in which a conclusion is
drawn from two statements known as a major premise and a minor premise.

 All living things will eventually die. (General statement – first premise)
 This animal is a living thing. (Inference – second premise)
 Therefore, this animal will eventually die. (Conclusion)

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Inductive

 This inductive process of moving from specific observations to

generalizations freed logic from some of the hazards and limitations of
deductive thinking.

 All the giraffes that I have seen (Repeated observations) have very long
necks. Therefore I conclude that all (Conclusion) giraffes have long
necks.

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 1.2. Scientific Research,

There Are Logical Steps To Be Followed:

(i) Identifying the problem and defining
(ii) Formulating the hypothesis
(iv) Reasoning for hypothesis prediction
(v) Testing the hypothesis

 The aim of research is to contribute to knowledge, so that every new

result adds to the previous state of knowledge, forming a basis for new
thinking and interpretation, new implications, identification of needs for
further research, etc.
 1.3 The Need for Scientific Research

 In today’s environment, the need and demand for a better understanding

about almost all aspects of sciences are exceeding the resources available for
research required to provide the understanding

 We are confronted with a host of problems and needs that range from the
local to the global scale of importance (is it locally
feasible/globally/regionally)

 A sound scientific methodology at least assures that the results of the

research have high probability of being true

 Scientific method is the only one available to us for discovering reliable

knowledge about nature/facts
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 1.4. Identifying and Prioritizing Research Needs

 Before writing a research proposal, the investigator must first establish the
important research needs that are appropriate for his or her research
organizations

 Prioritization of research problems will be very dependent on a number of

factors, including:
 The significance of the research problem or need
 The capacity of the researcher or organization to address the need
 The existing or potential availability of resources to carry out the research
 The perception of the general public, the government, or others as to the
importance of the problem
 The likelihood for the products and benefits to be derived from the
research
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 1.5 Traits of a Researcher

 The ability to pursue research is largely based on one’s capacity for it. The traits are:

 Reasoning power: The researcher must have capacity to solve problems deductively
and inductively
 Originality: Have creative, imagination, initiative and fertility of rational ideas
 Memory: Have extensive, logical and ready command of facts
 Alertness: Have quick, incisive and responsive observation, thought and feeling
 Accuracy: Have precise, keen, regular, reliable observation, thought and feeling
 Application: Have power of concentration, sustained attention, pertinent and well-
regulated effort
 Cooperation: Have the capacity for intellect, companionship, teamwork orientation
and leadership qualities.
 Moral attitude: Intellectual wholesome moral standards, ideals, influence, etc.
 Health: Have nervous stability, physique, vitality, endurance
 Zeal: have deep interest in craving for original creative work.
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 Chapter 2

2. RESEARCH AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

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Scientific Research (definition )

 Is that which utilizes the scientific method.

 It is systematic and controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of

hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural
phenomena.

 When we say that scientific research is systematic and controlled, we

mean, in effect, that scientific investigation is ordered that investigators
can have critical confidence in research outcomes

 Scientific investigation is empirical. If the scientist believes something is

so, he must some how or other put his belief to a test outside himself.
Subjective belief in other words, must be checked against objective
reality. Gebrewahd Amha Abesha
 Science

 Science is best defined as a careful, disciplined, logical search for

knowledge about any and all aspects of the universe, obtained by
examination of the best available evidence and always subject to
correction and improvement upon discovery of better evidence.

 Is an ‘objective, accurate, systematic analysis of a determinate body of

empirical data, in order to discover recurring relationships among
phenomena’.

A theory is a conceptual framework that explains existing observations

and predicts new ones..

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Hypothesis
 A hypothesis is a working assumption. Typically, a scientist devises a
hypothesis and then sees if it ``holds water'' by testing it against available
data (obtained from previous experiments and observations).

 If the hypothesis does hold water, the scientist declares it to be a theory.

 Scientific knowledge comes from testing theories by logically deducing

hypotheses from them, using experiment and careful observation to test the
hypotheses, and revising theories that lead to incorrect predictions.

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 2.2 The Scientific Method

 The scientific method is the process by which scientists, collectively and over
time, endeavor to construct an accurate (that is, reliable, consistent and non-
arbitrary) representation of the world.

 2.2.1 The scientific method has four steps

I. Observation and description of a phenomenon or group of phenomena.
II. Formulation of an hypothesis to explain the phenomena. In physics, the
hypothesis often takes the form of a causal mechanism or a mathematical
relation.
III. Use of the hypothesis to predict the existence of other phenomena, or to
predict quantitatively the results of new observations.
IV. Performance of experimental tests of the predictions by several
independent experimenters and properly performed experiments.
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2.2.2 Testing hypotheses

 As just stated, experimental tests may lead either to the confirmation of

the hypothesis, or to the ruling out of the hypothesis.

 The scientific method requires that a hypothesis be ruled out or modified

if its predictions are clearly and repeatedly incompatible with
experimental tests.

 Further, no matter how elegant a theory is, its predictions must agree with
experimental results if we are to believe that it is a valid description of
nature.

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2.3 Types of Research

 2.3. 1 Fundamental Research

 The purpose of research is the development of theories by discovering

broad generalizations or principles
 It employs careful sampling procedures in order to extend the findings.
 It has little concern for application of findings to actual problems in areas
considered to be the concern of the people other than the investigation.
 It is usually carried out in a laboratory situation, often with animals as
subjects
 In the social sciences, this type of research has been primarily the activity
of psychologists

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 2.3.2 Applied Research

 It has most of the characteristics of fundamental research, including the

use of sampling techniques and the subsequent inference about the target
population
 However, its purpose is improving a product or a process
 It also tests theoretical concepts in actual problem situation.
2.3.3 Action Research
 It is focused on the immediate application, not on the development of
theory, not upon general application
 It puts emphasis on a problem in a logical setting
 Its findings are to be evaluated in terms of universal validity
 Its purpose is to improve practices and, those who try to improve the
practices. And at the same time generate knowledge
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 2.3.4 Historical Research

 It describes what it was?

 The processes investigation, recording, analyzing and interpreting the events
of the past for the purpose of discovering generalizations that are helpful in
understanding the present, and to a limited extent, in anticipating the future.

2.3.5 Descriptive Research

 It describes what is?

 It involves some type of comparison or contrast and may attempt to discover
relationships that exist between existing non-manipulated variables.

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 2.3.7 Survey Research

 The approach has its own roots in the work of sociologists

 The researchers typically a considerable sample to be analyzed which suggests
the use of questionnaire with questions that are easy to be answered and that
permit qualitative evaluation
 It is typically applied to validate models or hypothesis.

2.3.8 Case Research

 Roots mainly in business research
 Cases are analyzed either to build or validate models or theories typically
through collection of textural data through interviews.

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3.3. 8- Experimental Research.


Experiment refers to that type of research in which variables are

manipulated and their effects upon other variables are observed.
The main purpose of experimental research is to allow the
researcher to infer cause and affect relationship from the study.

The most conventional type of experiment in the natural as well as

social sciences involves three major components.
i. Independent and dependent variables.
ii. Experimental and control groups.
iii. Pre-testing and post-testing.

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 Possible routes (categories) of Research

 Social scientists have for many years been involved in efforts

to classify the research methods. One of the most distinct
ways is the division of research methods into:
A. Qualitative
B. Quantitative

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A. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

 Focuses on the analysis of information so as to generate qualitative

explanation of phenomena. The techniques used to achieve this goal
depend on how the information is generated.
 A number of approaches, which are applicable to the qualitative research
process include:
 Interviewing
 Focus group discussion (FGD)
 Participatory rural appraisal (PRA), and
 Observation, among others.

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B. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

 Focuses on the analysis of information so as to generate quantifiable

results. To attain this goal, quantitative research relies on statistics.
Indeed, quantitative research is about using statistical techniques to
generate and analyze quantitative data.

 The main branches of statistics applicable to quantitative research

are:
 Techniques used in general research design, particularly sampling
procedures (first step in data collection)

 Techniques for description and display data (descriptive statistics).

Frequency distribution, data tabulation and graphic display are included.
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Chapter 3

Research Design

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 A research design
is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of Data
in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose
with economy in procedure.”

In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure within which

research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection,
measurement and analysis of data.

As such the design includes an Outline of what the researcher will do

from writing the hypothesis and its operational implications to the
final analysis of data.
More explicitly, the design decisions happen to be in respect of:
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one may split the overall research design into, The following parts:

(a) The sampling design which deals with the method of selecting
items to be observed for the given study;

(b) the observational design which relates to the conditions under

which the observations are to be made;

(c) the statistical design which concerns with the question of how
many items are to be observed and how the information and data
gathered are to be analyzed; and

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 d) The operational design which deals with the techniques by which the procedures
specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.
From what has been stated above, we can state the important features of a research
design as under:

 (i) It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the
research problem.

 (ii) It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and
analyzing the data.
 (iii) It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under
these two constraints.

 In brief, research design must, at least, contain—(a) a clear statement of the research
problem;
 (b) procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information; (c) the
population to be studied; and (d) methods to be used in processing and analyzing
data
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Experimental design specifies
- experimental design in the natural sciences as well as the social
sciences has three components.

1. Independent and dependent variables;

2. Experimental and control groups; and
3. Pre-testing and post testing

Principles of Experimental Design

 Replication

 Randomization

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 Completely Randomized Design (CRD)

 In CRD, the treatments are assigned completely at random so that each experimental
unit has the same chance of receiving any one treatment.
 In CRD, any difference among the experimental units (plots) receiving the same
treatment is considered as experimental error.
 Uses:
 CRD is useful when the experimental units (plots) are essentially homogeneous and
where environmental effects are relatively easy to control, e.g. laboratory and
greenhouse experiments. For field experiments where there is generally larger variation
among experimental plots like in soil fertility, slope, etc, the CRD is rarely used.

Randomization and Layout

In this design, treatments are assigned to the experimental units completely at random.

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Randomized Block Design (RBD)

 Randomized Block Design (RBD) can be used when the experimental

units can be meaningfully grouped, the number of units in a group being
equal to the number of treatments. Such a group is called a block or
replication. Each treatment appears an equal number of times usually
once, in each block and each block contains all the treatments.

 Blocking (grouping) is done based on:

 - Soil heterogeneity in a fertilizer or variety trials.
 - Initial body weight, age, sex, and breed of animal.
 - Slope of the field.

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Randomization and Layout

Step 1: Divide the experimental area (unit) into r-equal blocks,

where r is the number of replications, following the blocking
technique.

Step 2: Sub-divide the first block into t-equal experimental plots,

where t is the number of treatments and assign t treatments at
random to t-plots using any of the randomization scheme (random
numbers or lottery).
Step 3: Repeat step 2 for each of the remaining blocks.

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 Terms experimental design
a) Plot (Subject): It is the unit of material to which a treatment is applied.

A plot or experimental unit may be an area of land on which a crop is grown. It

may be a plant, piece of animal tissue, or a patient in a hospital.

b) Yield: Any quantitative measure obtained from a plot. It is the dependent

variable.

c) Treatment: Independent variable

d) Block: A group of plots used in the structure of a design because they have
certain inherent features in common.
e) Experimental group: The group that is exposed to the treatment (independent)
variable.
f) Control group:The group that is not exposed to the treatment (independent)
variable.
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 Chapter 4

DEVELOPING RESEARCH PROPOSAL

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 The objectives of this chapter are:
 To understand the major components of a research proposal
 To introduce the important steps leading to the write-up of the research
proposal
 The guide covers the major categories in a research proposal
 Remember these are ‘guidelines,’ not a ‘recipe for success’ or a ‘how-to-
do-it’
 Merely they indicate the conceptual breakdown of any research proposal
 The main purposes of writing a research proposals:
 They convince others that your research is worth undertaking.
 They enable you to demonstrate expertise and competency in your
particular area of study.
 They may serve as a contract between the researcher and her funders.
 They serve as a planning tool for the researcher.
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 4.1 COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

 Title:
 The title of the proposal should be a succinct summary of the topic and usually
should not exceed 17 words.
 The title should include key terms that readily identify the scope and nature of
the study, it should tell what the proposal is all about.
 it should be informative, specific and concise and is relevant to the intended
contents of the proposal.
 Unnecessary words or waste words that say nothing, such as "A Study of ...,"
“Observation of ....”, “Examination of....”, “A note on...”, “Investigation on...”.
etc. should always be avoided.
 It is usually be typed using all capital letters
 Abbreviations are not used in the title
 Journals or other publishers or research institutions give instructions to authors
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as to the length of the title to few words as much as possible.
Table of Contents

 Essentially, the table of contents for the proposal lists all of the
elements of the proposal, with accompanying page numbers.

 These elements generally include the following items: title page,

abstract, table of contents, introduction, review of literature,
methodology, reference list, and appendices.

 The table of contents should be double-spaced between entries;

entries longer than one line should be single-spaced.

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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

 The introduction persuades the reader that the topic is important and that the
objective of the research is justified. The introduction presents:
 The problem to be addressed, Should describe the nature and purpose of the
study,
 Present the guiding research questions, and explain the significance of and
justification and hypothesis for conducting the study.
 Briefly discuss the historical developments of events regarding the specific
topic you are interested to study
 Describe your basic assumptions that led you to study the topic.
 Justify why you think there is still a need to further study the topic. The
descriptions of the historical developments helps in justification.
 Briefly describe how you intend to go about conducting the study. Provides
the structure to be followed in conducting the study.
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1.1. Background Information

 This show the state of the art of a particular field of endeavor.

Shows the historical development of events regarding to the
specific topic. This helps to make clear what you wanted to
do.

 This provides information or the reason to justify the study

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1.2.The Research Problem (Statement of problem)

 The purpose is to further increase the understanding of the significance of

the proposed research

 This section is the most critical task in writing research proposal (i.e., the
central point in any research).

 Without a research problem, there is no real thinking, just wandering,

dreaming or associating.

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 The following questions helps in clarifying research problems:
 Is the problem interesting?
 Is the problem new?
 Will the study add to knowledge?
 Is the problem feasible?
 Has anyone else had a claim to it?

 Leading questions that can help you to formulate a research problem include:
 “What” do you want to know”
 “Where” do you want to do the research?
 “How” is the situation? What state of affairs or processes do you want to
describe?
 “When”?. What time span will you study?
 “Why” will you study this? To what purpose?
 “Which” consequences will the knew knowledge have?

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1.3. Justification (Importance) of the Study

 This sub-section addresses the likely contribution to

knowledge that the research will make and its place in current
debate/theory

 Describe the value of specific applications of knowledge to

be gained and the potential importance of these applications
 Describes the gaps that the proposed research is intended to
fill
 In addition to the theoretical significance of the research
problem, the practical/policy implications should be clearly
stated.
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 1.4.Defining the Objectives of the Study

 This section should specify the measurable outcomes of the research, i.e., end
products.
 Objectives must be typically very brief (specific) and achievable.
 General objective provides a short statement of the scientific goal being
pursued by the research.
 The specific objectives are operational in nature.
 Do not confuse objectives with goals. The latter are conceptual, ultimate and
more abstract. Objectives are specific and immediate.
 It is always wise to list specific objectives, no more than a sentence or two a
piece, in approximate order of their importance or potential contributions
 .

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 The objectives must neatly fit into the statement of the problem

 It is important to distinguish the specific objectives from the means of

achieving them, such as conducting fieldwork, organizing workshops, etc.

 Objective emphasizes what will be done, whereas a method will explain

how it will be done.

 Consider using bullets, numbers, or indentations to call attention to your

objectives in the text

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1.5 The Hypotheses

 Meaning of Hypotheses
 A hypotheses is a conjectural statement of the relationship between two or
more variables
 Hypotheses are statements about the relationship between variables
 Hypothesis carry clear implications for testing the stated relationship
 The hypotheses statements contain two or more variables that are
measurable or potentially measurable

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Types of Hypotheses

 There are two types of hypotheses:

 The Null Hypotheses: is a non-directional statement of condition
between variables
 It states that there is no significant difference between two parameters
 The Alternative/Research hypotheses
 It is a directional statement of a relationship between variables
 It states that there is significant difference between two parameters.

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 1.6.Delimiting the study

 Identify the boundaries of the research (scope)

 Describe the limitations (weaknesses in terms
of methodology) so that the results can be
interpreted accordingly.

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 Chapter 2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

 What is a review of the literature?

 A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by
accredited scholars and researchers. It is not just a descriptive list of the
material available, or a set of summaries.
 Purpose
 Your purpose is to convey to your reader what knowledge and ideas have
been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are.
 Expands the introductory chapter to address the questions raised
 Provides the theoretical basis for the research question
 Helps the researcher in the interpretation of results or findings.
 Helps the researcher to outline the implications of his study
 Helps to further define the research problem
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 2.2 Basic Guidelines

 As a piece of writing, the literature review must be defined by a guiding concept

(e.g., your research objective, the problem or issue you are discussing, or your
argumentative thesis

 It is not necessary to review all the literature in the field particularly if you are
dealing with a specific research topic. What you need are materials that have
direct relevance to the study

 It is an extremely important part of a thesis. In fact it is the most publishable part

of the study.
 Enlarging your knowledge about the topic, writing a literature review lets you
gain and demonstrate skills in two areas: (i) information seeking: the ability
to scan the literature efficiently, using manual or computerized methods, to
identify a set of useful articles and Amha
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Abeshacritical appraisal: (ii) The ability to

apply principles of analysis to identify unbiased and valid studies.

Basic Premises/Considerations
 It must provide a historical background of the subject to be studied (clear
background)
 It must adequately present any and all relevant materials that are available
showing:
 Difficulty of the problem
 The research design
 Procedures
 Instruments
 Analysis employed
 It should help in the development of the theoretical framework (clear
statement of the problem)
 It must present a summary relationship to the model or framework being
considered for the study
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Common Errors in Reviewing Literature

 Too frequently, researchers rely solely on secondary materials or

sources such as abstract, literature reviews done by other researchers and
the like

 Very frequently, researchers concentrate only on the findings in

research reports. The important parts also include overall methodology,
sampling, research design, methods of analysis, etc.

 Researchers usually overlook various sources particularly those from

developing countries other than developed countries

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Literature Search Strategies

 You can find highly relevant materials in other fields. This is how you expand
your literature

 Put together all the materials that deal with similar topics to understand the
relationship between available materials

 Normally, books in the library are arranged systematically. From the catalogue
card, it is possible to identify a book that is closely related to your study. Look
also in the shelf closer to that book.

 When you are not sure about the availability of materials in your research topic,
refer to the list of references at the end of a journal article you have found gives
you the related relevant materials.

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Chapter III. MATERIALS AND METHODS

 Purpose

 This section shows how the research objectives/hypotheses will be

answered/tested in the most rigorous way.
 Describes in detail the specific methods and the materials needed to accomplish
the research.
 Explains the procedures to be followed. It is not necessary, however, to describe
in detail a procedure already published, so cite the original reference but explain
modifications.
 Provide a clear and complete descriptions for all experimental, analytical, and
statistical procedures
 The section should include enough information so that another researcher can
repeat the procedures and expect to get similar results

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Cont.
 It is very useful to consider questions such as:

 “Where?” Important to describe where the study will explicitly takes place.

 “How?” provide a detailed description of what will occur from the time the
project starts until it ends, i.e., how you will do the research

 “When?” present the methods in a logical sequence of activities in a time

frame.

 “Why?” justify the chosen methods, especially if they are new or unique.
 Also explains why the planned activities are expected to produce certain
outcomes.

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3.1 Description of the Study Area

 Describing the biophysical environment of the study area is

very important
 Suggestion for content include:
 Location and physiography
 Climate
 Geology and soils
 Population and production systems

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3.2 Methodology

 Experimental Plan. The hypothesis or questions being asked and the

methodology being applied to the proposed project should be stated explicitly.
Specifically, this section must include:
 A description of the investigations and/or experiments proposed in the sequence in
which the investigations or experiments are to be performed
 Techniques to be used in carrying out the proposed project; including the
feasibility of the techniques
 Results expected
 Means by which experimental data will be analyzed or interpreted
 Means of applying results or accomplishing technology transfer, where
appropriate
 Pitfalls that may be encountered
 Limitations to proposed procedures; and
 A tentative schedule for conducting major steps involved in these investigations
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The Experimental Design/Research Design

 It is the plan, structure and strategy of the investigation

 the plan is the overall scheme to be followed in conducting the research
 the structure is the more specific outline of how the variables are
operationalized
 the strategy is a description of details such as methods to be employed in
collecting and analyzing the data.
 The design of planned experiments or the sampling protocol of surveys,
should be conveyed clearly and concisely
 Describe clearly and carefully your experimental subjects, numbers,
treatments, environmental conditions, measurements, field layout and
statistical models

 It will often dictated by the necessary and appropriate statistical tests or

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other evaluation tools that can dictate the hypothesis.
 Describing the variables (parameters) of the study

 There are two common ways of categorizing variables, namely independent and
dependent variables:
 The independent variable is the presumed cause
 The dependent variable is the presumed effect
 It is always necessary to define the clarity of the variables


 Describe/list the parameters to be studied and State any assumptions you made
and state quantities in standard units.
 Sampling Techniques
 A sample is part of a population which is observed in order to make inferences
about the whole population
Gebrewahd Amha Abesha
 Considerations to be taken in selecting/ determining sample are:
 Homogeneity sample taken from a heterogeneous population will not be
representative of the population.
 Size of the population if the population is large, you need a sample.
 Cost size of sampling is based on the cost
 Precision if to achieve precision, you will need a larger sample because the
larger the sample, the more precise will be the result.
 There are two general types of sampling methods (probability and non-probability)

 In probability sampling , each individual is selected randomly

 Random sampling Everyone has equal chance of being selected

 Systematic sampling This technique starts by numbering consecutively all
individuals in the population The first sample is selected through a simple random
process. Then, the succeeding samples are chosen at pre-established

 Stratified sampling Applicable when the population is not homogenous Divide the
population into homogenous groups
 In non-probability sampling there areAmha
Gebrewahd judgement,
Abesha quota and accidental sampling
 The Questionnaire/Interview Methods

 The Questionnaire

 Is a set of questions, arranged in sequence and designed to be self administered.

 The instructions are directed to the respondent.

 It has an advantage in that it is less expensive, ensures uniformity, respondents have
confidence to express their views
 Used if respondents are literate
 When you are using a questionnaire method explain:
 Why the questionnaire method is most suitable?
 Include a proposed questionnaire as an appendix
 Explain whether a questionnaire has been pre-tested or how this will be done?
 How will a sample will be chosen?
Gebrewahd Amha Abesha
The Interview

 Is also a set of questions, but the questions are meant to be asked by

interviewer
 It has advantages in that it yield much better information, more flexible,
the interviewer observes, if the respondent misunderstood, the interviewer
explains.
 In case of interviewing, who will do it and how will they be trained?


 In both cases there is a need to:

 List down research objectives
 For each objective list/prepare possible questions

Gebrewahd Amha Abesha

Data Collection and Analysis

 Describe exactly how you are going to collect your data

 Describe how you are going to proceed in using questions/interview/other
methods
 Discuss how you will present and analyze your data
 There are two major types of data analysis:
 Quantitative Analysis This include Descriptive statistics and ANOVA
 Qualitative Analysis Interpreting information

Gebrewahd Amha Abesha

Materials (Facilities and Equipment)

 It is certain that you will require the use of specific facilities and
equipment to carry out your research
 List the specific materials that will be required such as:
 Laboratory facilities
 Field equipment
 Computer facilities
 Etc.

Gebrewahd Amha Abesha

Chapter IV. WORKPLAN (TIMETABLE) AND BUDGET

 You need to present timetable/work plan/schedule for each

activity to be implemented
 The budget section is a statement of proposed support and
expenditures
 A poorly presented budget probably reflects a poorly
developed proposal
 State also if there is special collaboration/Cooperation

Gebrewahd Amha Abesha

 Chapter V. BIBLIOGRAPHIC CITATIONS

 Footnoting

 Footnotes are very useful devices because they serve a number of purposes
 They enable you to substantiate your presentation by citing other authorities
 They also enable you to present explanatory statements that would interfere with the
logic of your text
 Traditionally, footnote citations are placed at the bottom of the page
 They are separated from the text by a horizontal line from the text margin.

 Abbreviations
 You may use abbreviations in bibliographic and footnote citations if you want to
conserve space. Examples: bk., bks. = book, books.

Gebrewahd Amha Abesha

Bibliography (Reference/Literature Cited)

 Listing of materials that helped in developing the proposal (list of materials that
were cited or mentioned in the proposal)
 There are many ways of presenting the bibliography but be accurate and consistent
in the way you list
 Follow guidelines demanded by the particular journal, proceeding, etc. They do
have their own style of citations.
 Don’t fail to include citations of possible reviewers if at all relevant to the research
 Citing a source without having read/seen the original can lead to embarrassment and
loss of credibility if the secondary source from which you gained the information is
in error.
 General rule:
 Author (s). Year of Publication. Title of Work. Publication data.

Gebrewahd Amha Abesha

 In-text references (citations)

 References are citations of other works such as books, journal articles, or private
communications. References in text are treated somewhat differently from references in the
complete list at the end of a paper.

 Use the author-date format to cite references in text. For example: as Smith (1990) points out,
 For two-author citations, spell out both authors on all occurrences.

 For multiple-author citations (up to five authors) name all authors the first time, then use et al.,
so the first time it is Smith, Jones, Pearson and Sherwin (1990), but the second time it is Smith
et al., with a period after "al" but no underlining.

 For six or more authors, use et al. the first time and give the full citation in references.

 Include page reference after the year, outside quotes but inside the comma, for example: The
author stated, "The effect disappeared within minutes" (Lopez, 1993, p. 311) , but she did not
say which effect. Another example would be: Lopez found that "the effect disappeared within
minutes" (p. 311). Notice also that the sentence
Gebrewahd is capitalized only if presented after a comma,
Amha Abesha
as a complete sentence.
 In-text references (citations)

 If two or more multiple-author references which shorten to the same "et al." form,
making it ambiguous, give as many author names as necessary to make them
distinct, before et al. For example: (Smith, Jones, et al., 1991) to distinguish it
from (Smith, Burke, et al., 1991).

 Join names in a multiple-author citation with and (in text) or an ampersand (&) in
reference lists and parenthetical comments. For example: As Smith and Sarason
(1990) point out, the same argument was made by in an earlier study (Smith &
Sarason, 1990).

 If a group is readily identified by its initials, spell it out only the first time. For
example, "As reported in a government study (National Institute of Mental Health
[NIMH], 1991), blah blah..." and thereafter, "The previously cited study (NIMH,
1991) found that...
 If the author is unknown or unspecified, use the first few words of the reference
list entry (usually the title), for Gebrewahd
example: Amha Abesha
("Study Finds," 1992).
In-text references (citations)
 If citing multiple works by the same author at the same time, arrange dates in
order. In general, use letters after years to distinguish multiple publications by the
same author in the same year. For example: Several studies (Johnson, 1988,
1990a, 1990b, 1995 in press-a, 1995 in press-b) showed the same thing.

 For old works cite the translation or the original and modern copyright dates if
both are known, for example: (Aristotle, trans. 1931) or (James, 1890/1983).
 Always give page numbers for quotations, for example: (Cheek & Buss, 1981, p.
332) or (Shimamura, 1989, chap. 3, p. 5).

 For e-mail and other "unrecoverable data" use personal communication, for
example: (V.-G. Nguyen, personal communication, September 28, 1993). These
do not appear in the reference list.

Gebrewahd Amha Abesha

Abbreviating within a reference

 Here are approved abbreviations for use in a reference list:

 chap. for chapter
 ed. for edition
 rev. ed. for revised edition
 2nd ed. for second edition
 Ed. for Edited by
 (Eds.) for multiple editors
 Trans. for Translated by
 p. for page number, with a space after the period
 pp. for page numbers in encyclopedia entries, multi-page newspaper articles, chapters or articles in edited
books, but not in journal or magazine article citations, where numbers alone should be used (see examples
of reference formats).
 Vol. for Volume
 vols. for volumes
 No. for Number
 Pt. for Part
 Suppl. for Supplement,
 Tech. Rep. for Technical Report
Gebrewahd Amha Abesha
References
General Rule:

 Pagination: The References section begins on a new page.

 Format: The references lists are organized alphabetically by surnames of first
authors.
 Most reference entries have three components:
 Authors: Authors are listed in the same order as specified in the source, using
surnames and initials. Commas separate all authors. When there are seven or more
authors, list the first six and then use "et al." for remaining authors. If no author is
identified, the title of the document begins the reference. The first author always
starts with its surname followed by initials. The rest of authors are listed following
the first author either starts by initials followed by surnames or viceversa.
 Year of Publication: In parentheses following authors, with a period following the
closing parenthesis. Or without parenthesis following authors, with a period
following authors and after it. If no publication date is identified, use "n.d." in
parentheses or without parenthesis following the authors.
 Source Reference: Includes title, journal, volume, pages (for journal article) or
Gebrewahd Amha Abesha
title, edition, city of publication, publisher (for book). [Note: Italicize titles of
books, titles of periodicals, and periodical volume numbers.]
Examples of sources

 (i) Journal article

 Murzynski, J., & Degelman, D. (1996). Body language of women and judgments
of vulnerability to sexual assault. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26, 1617-
1626.
 (ii) Book
 Paloutzian, R. F. (1996). Invitation to the psychology of religion (2nd ed.).
Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
 American Psychiatric Association. (1990). Diagnostic and statistical manual of
mental disorders (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Author. (note: "Author" is used as
above when author and publisher are identical.)
 iii) Article or chapter in an edited book
 Shea, J. D. (1992). Religion and sexual adjustment. In J. F. Schumaker (Ed.),
Religion and Mental Health (pp. 70-84). New York: Oxford University Press

Gebrewahd Amha Abesha

Refrence
 (iv) Web document on university program or department Web site
 Degelman, D., & Harris, M. L. (2000). APA style essentials. Retrieved May 18, 2000, from
Vanguard University, Department of Psychology Web site:
http://www.vanguard.edu/faculty/ddegelman/index.cfm?doc_id=796
 (v) Stand-alone Web document (no date)
 Nielsen, M. E. (n.d.). Notable people in psychology of religion. Retrieved August 3, 2001,
from http://www.psywww.com/psyrelig/psyrelpr.htm
 (vi) Stand-alone Web document (no author, no date)
 Gender and society. (n.d.). Retrieved December 3, 2001, from
http://www.trinity.edu/~mkearl/gender.html
 Journal article from database
 Hien, D., & Honeyman, T. (2000). A closer look at the drug abuse-maternal aggression link.
Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15, 503-522. Retrieved May 20, 2000, from ProQuest
database.
 Abstract from secondary database
 Garrity, K., & Degelman, D. (1990). Effect of server introduction on restaurant tipping.
Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20, 168-172.
Gebrewahd Amha AbeshaAbstract retrieved July 23, 2001, from
PsycINFO database
reference
 (ix) Letter to the editor
 O'Neill, G. W. (1992, January). In support of DSM-III [Letter to the editor]. APA Monitor,
4-5.
 (x) Magazine article
 Gardner, H. (1991, December). Do babies sing a universal song? Psychology Today,70-76.
 (xi) Newsletter article
 Brown, L.S. (1993, Spring). My research with oranges. The Psychology Department
Newsletter, 3, 2.
 The date is given as it appears on the publication. For anonymous newspaper articles.
 (xii) Pamphlet
 Just Say No Foundation. (1992). Saving our youth. (9th ed.) [Brochure]. Washington, DC:
Author.
(xiii) Anonymous or unknown author (common in newspapers):
 Caffeine linked to mental illness. (1991, July 13). New York Times, pp. B13, B15.

Gebrewahd Amha Abesha

Chapter 4

 STYLE OF SCIENTIFIC PAPER WRITING

Gebrewahd Amha Abesha

 Writing a scientific paper is an integral part of the research processes:

 Problem identification Hypothesis formulation Design and conduct of expt.

Data analysis and hypothesis testing writing up the results Publish.
 The key factors in publishing a paper is knowledge of the principles of writing a
scientific paper. Since science generates science, there is an obligation to publish
research results if you are a scientist.

 Types of scientific publications

 Journals
 Research reports
 Bulletiens
 Annual reviews
 Conference/workshop proceedings
Gebrewahd Amha Abesha
 News letters, etc.
Five steps procedure to assess you results before you write

 Analyze and tabulate your data

 Write down the main findings and conclusions
 Assess the firmness of the conclusions
 Discuss your conclusions with experienced researchers/
scientists
 Assess your conclusions in the light of comments and
criticisms and decide whether to proceed or not.

Gebrewahd Amha Abesha

Which journal to write for (Selection of a journal)?

 Determined by the nature of your work

 The reputation of a journal
 Its circulation
 Its frequency of publication
 Its page cost, etc.
 Organisation Layout of a Research Paper
 There is no standard format
 Requirements of journal vary from discipline to discipline
 The writer is advised to follow the ‘instructions to authors’ of
the chosen journal.
Gebrewahd Amha Abesha
Parts of the Dissertation (M.Sc. Thesis or Ph.D. Dissertation):

 Title
 Signature Page
 Copyright (Optional)
 Acknowledgments
 Abstract
 Table of Contents
 List of Tables and List of Illustrations
 Acronyms/Abbreviations
 Chapter I. Introduction, or Statement of the Problem
 Chapter II. Review of the Literature and Research Questions
 Chapter III. Methodology
 Chapter IV. Results
 Chapter V. Discussion
 Chapter VI. Conclusion
 References
 Appendices/Annexes Gebrewahd Amha Abesha
 Title

 The title of the research paper, like the title of the proposal, should
summarize the project, should not generally exceed 17 words, and should
not include unnecessary words such as "A Study of...."

 The title should include key terms that readily identify the scope and nature
of the study; usually typed in all capital letters.

 It is a starting point for attracting a reader’s attention

 Characteristics of a good title are brevity (briefness) and specificity
(specific to the point).
 A good title adequately describes the contents of the paper clearly
 A general title may disappoint a reader
Gebrewahd Amha Abesha
Authorship

 Who? In what sequence?

 Only those who contributed to the work, in order of magnitude of their
contributions.
 Give the addresses of each author.

 Copyright (applies only for Desertion or Thesis)

 Copyrighting the dissertation, although highly desirable, is optional.

Candidates who wish to may apply for a copyright for their dissertations,
through University Microfilms Incorporated (UMI) or other avenues.

Gebrewahd Amha Abesha

Acknowledgments
 Acknowledgments give credit for external support received throughout
the dissertation process and recognize generally the contributions of
committee members and others who made important contributions.
 Acknowledgments also express gratitude for the use of copyrighted or
otherwise restricted materials, as appropriate.

 A doctoral candidate may choose to dedicate the dissertation to a person

or persons who have had significant impact on the author's work. This
dedication, when included, should be brief and is best placed at the end of
the acknowledgments section.

 This comes after the conclusion and before reference for a journal
paper Gebrewahd Amha Abesha
Abstract
 Purpose:
 Guide subject-matter experts in assessing contents of the paper
 Provide maximum possible information to peripheral readers
 Assist abstracting journals for indexing services

 Ingredients:
 Statement of the problem and objectives
 Methods used (very briefly)
 Major results or findings
 Concluding statement (s).

Gebrewahd Amha Abesha

Important attributes:

 It is a brief summary of the research

 The abstract, which must not exceed 350 words for the final dissertation
(do not exceed 250 words for a journal paper), is a concise (brief),
comprehensive summary of the contents of the paper. Generally written
after the write up is complete.

 The abstract should be readable, coherent, well-organized, concise, and

self-contained because the abstract is often printed separately.

 It contains information that is contained in the text

Gebrewahd Amha Abesha

Table of Contents (applies only for Desertion or Thesis)

 The table of contents should list in order of appearance all components of

the dissertation, including all headings and subheadings, with the correct
corresponding page numbers. The table of contents should be double-
spaced between entries; entries longer than one line should be single-
spaced.

 The page numbers for materials preceding Chapter I (Introduction) should

be in lower-case roman numerals, while all subsequent materials should
be listed with standard Arabic numerals.

Gebrewahd Amha Abesha

List of Tables and List of Illustrations (applies only for Desertion or
Thesis)

 Separate lists should be created for tables and illustrations that appear in the
text of the document.
 Illustrations appropriate for use in dissertations include figures, maps,
diagrams, photos, and plates.
 These lists should include the number and full name of each table or
illustration, listed in order of appearance in the text, followed by the number
of the page on which the table or illustration appears.

 Tables and illustrations are usually numbered sequentially in Arabic

numerals, the first digit representing the chapter, followed by a decimal and
the table or illustration's number within that chapter, e.g. 4.12 (the twelfth
table or illustration in chapter 4).

 The list of tables and the listGebrewahd

of illustrations
Amha Abesha should be double-spaced

between entries; entries longer than one line should be single-spaced

MAIN BODY OF A RESEARCH PAPER

 Introduction.

 As in the proposal, the introduction presents the problem addressed by the research.
 Gives sufficient background information to allow readers to understand the results of
the study.
 It is described in such a way that readers will know the current status of research
conclusions on the topic, the theoretical implications associated with the results of
previous research on the subject, and the statement of a hypothetical resolution of the
issues to be tested by the research described.
 As in the proposal, the introduction should describe the nature and purpose of the
study, present the guiding research questions, and explain the significance of and
justification for conducting the study. Terms likely to be used throughout the paper
should be defined in this section.
 A statement of objectives is included and a research hypothesis.
Gebrewahd Amha Abesha
Review of the Literature (Optional)

 The review of the literature provides or summarizes the present study in the
context of previous research.

 The review should be similar to the review of literature in the proposal but
should reflect any change of focus or direction that resulted from the research
process.

 Again, this section may present the hypothesis or research questions and the
relationship of these to previous findings.

Gebrewahd Amha Abesha

Materials and Methods (Methodology)

 The methodology section of the paper should build on the description of

methods outlined in the proposal.
 Labeled subsections similar to those in the proposal should be included.

 These may include a section describing participants or subjects, a section

describing testing or other measurement procedures undertaken with the
participants, and a section discussing limitations of the methodology.

 (The descriptions of the analyses which appeared in the proposal are

usually incorporated in the results section of the final dissertation.)

 Describe (in past tens or pastGebrewahd

perfect tense) the methods and materials used
Amha Abesha
so that others may repeat the experiment and validate the result.
 Results

 The results section summarizes the data collected and details the statistical treatment
of that data.
 Present your results in a logical sequence using only observations pertinent to your
stated objectives.
 After a brief statement of the main results or findings of the study, the data are
reported in sufficient detail to justify the conclusions.
 Tables and illustrations (e.g., figures et al.) may be used to report data when these
methods are seen to present the data more clearly and economically.
 Do not list replicate observations in your tables. Give only means and measures of
variability
 Use tables to present exact values and figures to show trends and relationships
 All tables and illustrations used should be mentioned in the text, with appropriate
titles or captions and enough explanation to make them readily identifiable.
 Avoid repetition of numerical data from the tables and figures in the text
Gebrewahd Amha Abesha
Discussion

 What do my results mean and what are their implications?

 Should interpret your results clearly, concisely and logically. For each
objective, describe how your results relate to meeting that objective.
 In the discussion section, the major results are picked or summarized,
evaluated, and interpreted with respect to the original research questions and
hypotheses and related with previous works..
 In this section, the investigator is free to examine, interpret, and qualify the
results, as well as to draw inferences from them.
 Theoretical and practical consequences of the results and the validity of
conclusions may appropriately be discussed in this section.
 The limitations of the study and suggestions for future work may also be
included.
 Emphasize on new results and suggest new lines of work or further research.
Gebrewahd Amha Abesha
Conclusion

 Should describe briefly what you did, the main results and recommendations for
further research or applicability.
 Implications what the findings of the research imply (consider suggestions)..

 References

 The reference list at the end of the paper should list all works cited in the paper,
and all items listed as references must have been cited in the text.

 Special attention should be given to ensure appropriate citations of less common

sources, such as unpublished manuscripts.

Gebrewahd Amha Abesha

APPENDICES (ANNEXES)

 Materials that document important components of the research process that

would be too lengthy, awkward, or distracting to include within the text
should be included as appendices in the final document.

 These materials may include pertinent raw data, materials, consent forms,
letters of introduction to subjects, questionnaires, survey forms, and the like.
 The appendix section should begin with its own cover page.
 Each appendix may have its own cover page.
 The word "APPENDIX" should appear in all capital letters.

Gebrewahd Amha Abesha

OTHER IMPORTANT TIPS

 Appropriate use of language (simple, clear, easy, conventional, correct and

free from colloquialism)
 Do not put off your writing. Write with care.
 Convey your results to your peers.
 EITHER PUBLISH OR PERISH

Gebrewahd Amha Abesha

Chapter 6

 Style of Scientific Paper Presentation

Gebrewahd Amha Abesha