High Efficiency Grinding

using cBN wheel

 Grinding
Grinding is an abrasive machining process that uses a grinding
wheel as the cutting tool.
• a large and diverse area
of manufacturing and tool-
making
• very fine finishes and very
accurate dimensions
• rough out large volumes of
metal quite rapidly
• Grinding is a true metal-cutting process.
• Each grain of abrasive functions as a microscopic single-point cutting edge
• This shears a tiny chip.

Some types of grinding:

1. Surface grinding
(Horizontal/Vertical)
2. Cylindrical grinding
(External/Internal)
3. Centerless grinding
(External/Internal)

The specific material removal rate in conventional grinding is less than 10 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑚𝑚. 𝑠. It has long been a pursuit in
academic and engineering field to improve grinding efficiency.
 Why High Efficiency Grinding?
• One factor behind the innovative process has been the need to increase
productivity for conventional finishing processes.
• In the course of process development it has become evident that high-speed
grinding in combination with preliminary machining processes, close to the finished
contour, enable the configuration of new process sequences with high-
performance capabilities.
• Using the appropriate grinding machines and grinding tools, it is possible to expand
the scope of grinding to high-performance machining of soft materials.
 What is High Efficiency Grinding?
Grinding techniques adopting any of the below mentioned methods (one or
multiple at a time) to improve specific material removal rate in comparison
with conventional grinding can be called as high-efficiency grinding.

1. Adopting high-speed, super-high speed or wide-wheel grinding to increase

the amount of active abrasive per unit time;
2. Increasing cutting depth so as to increase the length of grinding debris;
3. Adopting powerful grinding to increase the mean cross-sectional area of
grinding debris.
 High Efficiency Grinding

High Efficiency Deep Grinding (HEDG) Temperature measurement in high efficiency deep grinding
 Theoretical basis of high-speed grinding
The mean undeformed chip thickness-> hcu,
the mean chip length-> lcu,
are employed as variables to describe the shape of the chip.
The undeformed chip thickness is dependent on the static density of cutting edges, Cstat, and on
the geometric and kinematic variables
hcu =k1 Cstatα vw vs β ae deqγ
where vw is the workpiece speed,
vs the grinding wheel speed,
ae the depth of cut,
deq the equivalent grinding wheel diameter, and
α, β, γ are greater than zero.
• On the basis of this relationship, it can be established that an increase in the cutting
speed, assuming all other conditions are constant, will result in a reduction in the
undeformed chip thickness.
• The workpiece material is machined with a larger number of abrasive grain contacts.
• At the same time, the number of cutting edges involved in the process decreases.
• This leads to the advantages promised by high-speed grinding which is characterized by
a reduction in grinding forces, grinding wheel wear, and in workpiece surface
roughness.
• Consequently, increasing the speed of the grinding wheel can lead to an increase in the
quality of the workpiece material, or alternatively, an increase in productivity.
With the increase in cutting speed,
• the quantity of thermal energy that is introduced into the workpiece also
increases.
• the tangential grinding force is tangentially reduced, and thus results in an
increase in process power.
 Reducing the contact time can reduce the quantity of heat into the workpiece.
 An increase in the machining rate of the process is necessary for this to happen
 Increasing the cutting speed by a factor of two while maintaining the same metal removal rate leads to a
reduction in the tangential force but, unfortunately, leads to an increase in the amount of work done.
 When the material removal rate is also increased the rising tangential force results in a further increase in
grinding power. The quantity of thermal energy introduced into the workpiece is lower than the initial
situation when the same-machined workpiece volume applies despite the higher cutting speed and
increased metal removal rate.
These considerations show that machining productivity can be increased using
high-speed grinding without having to accept undesirable effects on ground
components.
There are three fields of technology that have become established for high-
speed grinding. These are :
• High-speed grinding with CBN grinding wheels.
• High-speed grinding with aluminium oxide grinding wheels.
• Grinding with aluminium oxide grinding wheels in conjunction with
continuous dressing techniques (CD grinding).

High equivalent chip thickness of between

0.5 and 10 μm are a characteristic feature of
high-speed grinding. CBN high-speed
grinding is employed for a large proportion
of these applications. An essential
characteristic of this technology is that the
performance of CBN is utilised when high
cutting speeds are employed.

Fig. Main field of applications for high-speed grinding

 Grinding tools for high-speed grinding
Some of the desirable characteristics of cBN grinding tools for high-speed machining are :
• Good damping characteristics
• high rigidity
• good thermal conductivity
Such tools normally consist of a body of high mechanical strength and a comparably thin coating of
abrasive attached to the body using a high-strength adhesive.
The suitability of cubic boron nitride as an abrasive material for high-speed machining of ferrous
materials is attributed to its extreme hardness and its thermal and chemical durability.
High cutting speeds are attainable above all with metal bonding systems. One method that uses such
bonding systems is electroplating, where grinding wheels are produced with a single-layer coating of
abrasive CBN grain material. The electro-deposited nickel bond displays outstanding grain retention
properties. This provides a high-level grain projection and large chip spaces. Cutting speeds of
280 m s−1 are possible. The service life ends when the abrasive layer wears out.
Fig. Bonding systems and associated metal removal rates for CBN grinding wheels
The high roughness of the cutting surfaces of electroplated CBN grinding wheels has disadvantageous
effects. The high roughness is accountable to exposed grain tips that result from different grain shapes
and grain diameters. Although electroplated CBN grinding wheels are not considered to be dressable in
the conventional sense, the resultant workpiece surface roughness can nevertheless be influenced
within narrow limits by means of a so-called touch-dressing process.
Multi-layer bonding systems for CBN grinding wheels
include sintered metal bonds, resin bonds, and vitrified
bonds. In comparison with other types of bonds,
vitrified bonds permit easy dressing while at the same
time possess high levels of resistance to wear. In
contrast to impermeable resin and metal bonds, the
porosity of the vitrified grinding wheel can be adjusted
over a broad range by varying the formulation and the
manufacturing process. As the structure of vitrified
bonded CBN grinding wheels results in a subsequently
increased chip space after dressing, the sharpening
process is simplified, or can be eliminated in numerous
applications.

Fig. Microstructure of a vitrified CBN grinding

wheel. The abrasive grains stand proud of the
vitrified bond and are approximately 125 μm in
diameter.
Selection of the Grade of Vitrified cBN wheel
The selection of the appropriate grade of
vitrified CBN grinding wheel for high-
speed grinding is more complicated than
for aluminium oxide grinding wheels.
Here, the CBN abrasive grain size is
dependent on specific metal removal
rate, surface roughness requirement,
and the equivalent grinding wheel
diameter. As a starting point when
specifying vitrified CBN wheels.
The adjacent figure shows the
relationship between CBN abrasive grain
size, equivalent diameter, and specific
metal removal rate for outside diameter
grinding operations.
The choice of abrasive grain is also dependent on the surface roughness requirement and is
restricted by the specific metal removal rate. The following table shows the relationship between
CBN grain size and their maximum surface roughness and specific metal removal rates.

Maximum specific metal removal

CBN grain size Surface roughness, Ra(μm)
rate Qw,max(mm3 mm−1 s−1)
B46 0.15–0.3 1
B54 0.25–0.4 3
B64 0.3–0.5 5
B76 0.35–0.55 10
B91 0.4–0.6 20
B107 0.5–0.7 30
B126 0.6–0.8 40
B151 0.7–0.9 50
B181 0.8–1 70

Table. cBN abrasive grain selection chart based on camshaft and crankshaft grinding applications
The workpiece material has a significant influence on the type and volume of vitrified bond used in the
grinding wheel. The following table shows the wheel grade required for a variety of workpiece materials
that are based on crankshaft and camshaft grinding operations.

Workpiece material Grinding wheel speed, vs(m s−1) Vitrified CBN wheel specification Application details
Chilled cast iron 120 B181R200VSS High Qw′
B126P200VSS Medium Qw′
B107N200VSS Low Qw′

Nodular cast iron 80 B181P200VSS No loading

B181K200VSS Loading
B181L150VSS Low stiffness
B181L150VDB Very low stiffness workpiece

AISI 1050 steel (hardened) 80 B126N150VSS Standard specification

B126N150VTR Low power machine tool

AISI 1050 steel (soft condition) 120 B181K200VSS

High speed tool steel 60 B107N150VSS

Form dressing is usually

Inconel (poor grindability) 50 B181T100VTR
required
B181T125VTR
 High-speed machine tool development
In order to attain very high cutting speeds, grinding wheel spindles and bearings are required to operate at speeds in the
order of 20 000 rpm. The grinding wheel must run with extreme accuracy and minimum vibration in order to minimize
the level of dynamic process forces. Therefore, a high level of rigidity is required for the entire machine tool. Balancing
of high-speed grinding wheels is also necessary at high operating speeds using dynamic balancing techniques. These
techniques are required so that workpiece quality and increased tool life is preserved.

Another important consideration is the level of drive power required when increases in rotational speed become
considerable. The required total output is composed of the cutting power, Pc, and the power loss, Pl:(2)
Ptotal= Pc + Pl
The cutting power is the product of the tangential grinding force and the cutting speed:
Pc= Ft′ vc
The power loss of the drive is comprised of the idle power of the spindle, PL, and power losses caused by the
coolant, PKSS, and by spray cleaning of the grinding wheel, PSSP, thus
Pl = PL + PKSS + PSSP
The power measurements shown in figure given below confirm the influence of the effect of cutting
speed on the reduction of cutting power. However, idling power has increased quite significantly. The
grinding power, Pc, increases by a relatively small amount when the cutting speed increases and all
other grinding parameters remain constant. However, this means that the substantial power
requirement that applies at maximum cutting speeds results from a strong increase in power is due to
rotation of the grinding wheel, the supply of coolant, and the cleaning of the wheel.

Fig. The effect of cutting speed on spindle power

The quantities and pressures of coolant supplied to the grinding wheel and the wheel cleaning process
are the focus of attention by machine tool designers. This is shown in the figure below. The power losses
associated with the rotation of the grinding wheel are supplemented by losses associated with coolant
supply and wheel cleaning. The losses are dependent on machining parameters implying that machine
settings and coolant supply need to be optimised for high-speed grinding.

Fig. Levels of idling power, coolant power supply, and grinding wheel cleaning
power in a machine tool using an electroplated CBN grinding wheel
 Factors affecting quality
The aim of high-speed CBN grinding is to substitute conventional machining operations such as milling, turning,
and surface broaching. The high-speed grinding process focuses on machining large volumes of material in the
shortest possible time. This may lead to workpiece quality becoming impaired as the equivalent chip thickness
increases in proportion to grinding forces. The machine tool must be able to absorb such large forces. It is
possible to reduce the amount of heat in the grinding process using high grinding wheel speeds.

Fig. Influence of the equivalent chip thickness on the specific normal force
 Results
There is no doubt that the technological
and engineering research and
development carried by the car
manufacturer in conjunction with Toyoda
Machine Works and Unicorn was one of
the greatest influences for new grinding
technology utilising vitrified CBN.
The rewards are self-evident (Fig.) in that
the abrasive cost per cam lobe has
decreased every year since installation.
The use of vitrified CBN provided the car
manufacturer with a viable method of
manufacture for grinding camshafts with a
re-entrant cam lobe profile, and within 5
years reduced abrasive costs to below
those of conventional abrasives.

Fig. Comparison between abrasive costs (cents per cam lobe) using conventional
aluminium oxide and CBN abrasives.
 Recent Developments
Recent developments in CBN abrasive research have also led to a variety of
new abrasive grits which are reported to grind with lower power and remain
sharper for a longer period of time than current CBN abrasives.

In addition to development work carried out by grinding wheel

manufacturers, it should be pointed out that the growth of vitrified CBN
grinding technology has been advanced by machine tool manufacturers who
have played significant role in developing the US and European market for
novel cam lobe, crank pin, angle head, and multi-wheel grinding
applications.
Additional applications will develop for vitrified CBN high-speed grinding
technology as a result of developments in near-net-shape technology. Rough
and finish machining of hardened components in one grinding operation
enables the user to reduce machining sequences. Present research topics
will enable new materials with special functional requirements, such as
powder metal high-speed steel variable-valve control (VVC) camshafts, to be
machined using high-performance machining techniques.
 Conclusion

It has been shown that the development of vitrified CBN grinding technology is a collaborative
partnership between end user, machine tool builder, and abrasive supplier. In this particular case,
the end user has been able to reduce grinding costs to below that incurred using conventional
abrasives. Continued collaboration in addition to new developments in materials technology
associated with abrasive products and camshafts will reduce grinding costs even further.
 Acknowledgements
Images
1. Drake manufacturing
2. Wikipedia

References
 G. Kassen, Beschreibung der elementaren kinematik des schleifvorgangs, Doctoral Thesis, Technische Hochschulle
Aachen, Germany, 1969.
 G. Werner, Kinematik und mechanik des schleifprozesses, Doctoral Thesis, Technische Hochschulle Aachen,
Germany, 1972.
 C. Treffert, Hochgeschwindigkeitsschleifen mit galvanisch gebundenen CBN-schleifscheiben, Doctoral Thesis,
Technische Hochschulle Aachen, Germany, 1994.
 K. Martin, K. Yegenoglu, in: HSG Technologie — Handbuch zur praktischen anwendung, Geuhring Automation
GmbH, Stetten a.k.M.-Ffronstetten, Germany, 1992.
 A. Von Arciszewski, Tiefschleifen mit kontinuierlichem abrichten (CD) — verfahrensgrundlagen und
anwendungen, Doctoral Thesis, Technische Hochschulle Aachen, Germany, 1991.