AC WAVEFORMS

• Alternating Current (AC) is current that periodically

reverses direction
• If the switch changes position every second:

1A
10V 10V 10 10V 10V 10
1A

+1A

1 2 3 4
0
T(s)

-1A

AC Fundamentals 1
 AC WAVEFORMS

• The plot, or graph, of a current (or voltage) versus time

is called a waveform
• The magnitude is the size of current or voltage (y-axis)
• Waveforms where the current changes magnitude, but
not direction (all the values remain positive or negative)
are referred to as pulsating DC
• Such waveforms can also be regarded as the
superposition (addition) of an AC waveform and a DC
level
• An AC voltage is one that periodically reverses polarity
• The voltage across the 10Ω resistor reverses polarity
as 1s intervals
• An AC voltage source produces an EMF whose polarity
reverses at periodic intervals
• The AC waveform used the most in circuit theory is the
sinusoidal waveform or sine wave

AC Fundamentals 2
 AC WAVEFORMS
i(t)

AC increasing and decreasing

linearly with time, triangular waveform

Pulsating DC. Current does not

reverse direction, doesn’t go negative

Sawtooth waveform

Pulsating DC.
Not AC.
AC superimposed
on DC level

t
Max current in positive direction

Sinusoidal AC

Min current in
negative direction

AC Fundamentals 3
 REVIEW OF TRIG FUNCTIONS

• Sine is a function of angle

y
Positive angle

Negative angle

• Positive angles are measured in the anticlockwise

direction from the positive x-axis. Negative angles are
measured in a clockwise direction.
• In AC circuit theory, angles greater than 180° are
expressed as negative equivalent angles.
• Eg. 225° = -135° (225 - 360)
• Angles more negative than -180° are expressed in
equivalent positive angles
• Top two quadrants expressed in positive angles
• Bottom two quadrants expressed in negative angles
• Angle on negative x-axis is 180°
• 200°=200°-360°= -160°; -250°= -250°+360°= 110°
• 400°=400°-360° = 40°; 800°=800°-2(360°) = 80°
• Sin(-θ) = -sin(θ)

AC Fundamentals 4
 PROJECTION OF ROTATING
RADIUS

90° 90°

• As the radius of the circle rotates anticlockwise, the

angle it generates between itself and the positive x-axis
varies from 0 to 360°
• At any instant, the radius is the hypotenuse of a right-
angled triangle, containing the angle θ
• Sin θ = 0 when θ = 0 and θ = 180°
• Sin (θ+90°) = cos θ
• Sin θ = cos (θ - 90°)
• Cos(- θ) = cos θ

AC Fundamentals 5
 USEFUL TRIG RELATIONSHIPS

• Sin(θ180°) = -sin θ
• Cos(θ180°) = -cos θ
• Sin(θ180°) = -sin(θ)
• Cos(θ180°) = -cos(θ)
r
• Tan90° = +∞ b

• Tan(-90°) = -∞
θ
• Tan θ = b/a a
• Sin θ = b/r; b = r sin θ
• Cos θ = a/r; a = r cos θ
• Sin-1(b/r) = θ or arcsin(b/r) = θ
• Cos-1(a/r) = θ or arcos(a/r) = θ
• Tan-1(b/a) = θ or arctan(b/a) = θ

AC Fundamentals 6
 WAVEFORM PARAMETERS:
PERIOD AND FREQUENCY
i
T = 0.4s

0.3 0.4 0.6

t
0 0.1 0.2 0.5

T = 0.4s

• An AC waveform can be considered to exist for all time

• Yet we need a reference time, t =0, where plot begins
• Helps us to express waveform mathematically
• Periodic AC waveform repeats at regular intervals
• The time required to complete a cycle is called the
period T
• Period can be measured between any two
corresponding points on successive cycles
• Frequency is 1/T (Hertz – Hz)
• 1 Hz = 1 cycle/second

AC Fundamentals 7
 WAVEFORM PARAMETERS:
RADIANS & ANGULAR FREQUENCY
y

+1 y = sin = sin ωt

π 3π/2
0 π/2 2π  = ωt rad

-1

• Radian is the SI unit of angle: π radians = 180°

• 45° = 45(π/180) = π/4 rad = 0.7854 rad
• 1 rad = 1(180/π) = 57.296°
• Above is a sine function plot versus angle in radians
• 1 cycle repeats at every 2nπ radians intervals
• Angular velocity (ω) is the amount of angle the plot
sweeps through in a given amount of time
• ω = θ/t rad/s (rad s-1) angular frequency = 2πf
• θ = ωt rad
• Sine wave can be expressed as a function of time
• Sin θ = sin ωt = sin (2πf)t

AC Fundamentals 8
 WAVEFORM PARAMETERS:
PEAK & INSTANTANEOUS VALUES
v(t)
+3V

Peak
value
=3V
Peak-to-peak t
value = 6V 0

-3V

• Max value reached by AC waveform - peak value (pk)

• Peak-to-peak (p-p) value is the difference between
positive peak and negative peak values (3 - -3 = 6)
• The peak value is also called amplitude
• Any sin function can be expressed as
vt   V p sin t
it   I p sin t
• Vp and Ip are the peak values
• Lowercase i and v used for AC quantities
• Uppercase I and V used for DC quantities
• Instantaneous value of AC waveform is the value at
specific instant of time: i(t) = 3sin100t at t = 2ms?

AC Fundamentals 9
 PHASE RELATIONS

• Adding angle  to angle θ in the sine function: sin(θ )

causes to sine waveform to shift left (+ ) or right (- )

vt   V p sin t   

it   I p sin t   
• ωt is in radians, but  is expressed in degrees
• v(t) = 5 sin (100t + 30°) V means v(t) is shifted left by
30°
• Example: Find the instantaneous value at t = 0.25s of
i(t) = 0.5 sin (8105t + 50°) A
• Answer: 0.439 A

AC Fundamentals 10
 LAG AND LEAD

• When two waveforms have different phase

angles, the one shifted farthest to the left is said
to lead the other
• v1(t) = 6 sin(ωt + 50°) leads v2(t) = 0.1 sin(ωt +
20°) because v1 is shifted left by 50°, while v2 is
shifted left by 20°
• v1 has a phase shift 30° greater than that of v2, i.e.
v1 leads v2 by 30°, or v2 lags v1 by 30°
• Lead-lag terminology derived from observation of
relative positions of the waveforms when plotted
versus time
• The waveform with greater positive phase
reaches its peak first (earliest in time), i.e. it leads
the other

AC Fundamentals 11
 LAG AND LEAD EXAMPLE

vt   10 sin t  30V

80° i t   10 sin t  50A

ωt

30° 50°

80°

• v(t) is shifted left by 30°, i(t) is shifted right by 50°

• v(t) lies to the left by 80°, thus v(t) leads i(t) by 80°
• Equivalently i(t) lags v(t) by 80°
• Notice how v(t) reaches its peak value 80° before i(t)
• Phase comparisons of this type can only be made if the
two waveforms have the same frequency ω
• i1 = 75sin(ωt - 18°)A; i2 = 3sin(ωt - 31°)A
• i1 shifted right by 18°, i2 shifted right by 31°. i1 lies 31-
18=13° to left of i2. i1 leads i2 by 13°

AC Fundamentals 12
 AVERAGE VALUES (1)

• Average value of waveform is the average of all its

values over a period of time
• Computing the average over time involves adding all
the values that occur in a specific time interval and
dividing that sum by time
• This is done by computing the area of waveform over a
period of time
• Area above time axis is a positive area
• Area below time axis is a negative area
• Algebraic signs must be taken into account when
computing total (net) area
• Time interval is the period T
• Find the average value of the following AC waveform
v(t)

+15V A1

A2
0.2 0.6 0.8 1.2
0 t(s)
-3V
T

AC Fundamentals 13
 AVERAGE VALUES (2)

• Sine waves are symmetrical about time axis, thus

average is zero: positive area cancels negative area
• Must use calculus to compute average, and we take
into consideration the area of a half cycle of a
sinusoidal waveform, called a pulse
• Using calculus it can be shown that:
• Area = 2Vp/ω V-s or 2Ip/ω A-s
• What is the average of the following waveform

i(t)

0.4A

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 t (s)

AC Fundamentals 14
 AVERAGE VALUES (3)

• Average value of waveform also called dc value

• Knowledge of average value important in the design of
high power devices such as power supplies and power
amplifiers
• Waveforms in circuits regarded as sine waves with dc
offset
• DC level (offset) is simply added to ac waveform
• Equation for ac voltage with dc component Vdc is
• v(t) = Vdc + Vp sin(ωt + )
• Vdc can either be positive or negative
• Minimum v(t) = Vdc – Vp volts
• Maximum v(t) = Vdc + Vp volts
• Find the average value of v(t), and derive mathematical
expression as a function of time

+12V

Vdc
0
2 10 t (s)
-2V

AC Fundamentals 15
 EFFECTIVE (RMS) VALUES (1)

• Average values not useful

2
for comparing sinusoidal ac Veff  V p  0.707V p
waveforms because 2
average value is zero 2
I eff  I p  0.707 I p
• Use measure called 2
effective or root mean
V p  2Veff  1.414V p
square (rms) value
• Measure shows how I p  2 I eff  1.414 I p
effective the waveform
produces heat in a
resistance • Find the effective value of
• RMS measure eliminates the ac current i(t) =
consideration of waveform 4.2sin(5000t + 45°)A
polarity • The ac voltage supplied at
• The DC voltage that a terminal has a frequency
causes the same heating in of 60Hz and effective value
resistance R as an ac of 120V rms. Derive the
voltage is the effective mathematical expression
value (rms value) of the ac for the voltage at the
voltage (likewise for terminal, assuming zero
current) phase angle

AC Fundamentals 16
 EFFECTIVE (RMS) VALUES (2)

• Relationship between peak and rms values given in

previous equations valid only for sinusoids
• It is possible to compute effective value of some
nonsinusoidal waveforms using root mean square
method
• Square the waveform, find its average, then square root
the answer
• [average(waveform)2]
• Find the effective value of the voltage of this waveform

v(t)

+20V

2 4 7 9 12
0 1 5 6 10 11 t (s)

-12V

AC Fundamentals 17
 AC VOLTAGE AND CURRENT IN
RESISTANCE

• Ohm’s Law can be applied to an ac circuit

containing a resistance to determine ac current in
a resistance when ac voltage is applied across it
• At every instant in time, the current in the resistor
is the voltage at that instant divided by the
resistance, i.e. instantaneous current is
instantaneous voltage divided by the resistance

v t 
i (t ) 
R

• For a sinusoidal voltage

Vp
it   sin t   
R
• Ip = Vp/R
• The voltage across and the current through the
resistor have the same phase angle, they are in
phase

AC Fundamentals 18
 AC VOLTAGE AND CURRENT IN
RESISTANCE: EXAMPLES

• The current in a 2.2 kΩ resistor is:

• i(t) = 5sin(2π  100t + 45°) mA
• Write the mathematical expression for the voltage
across the capacitor
• What is the effective value of the resistor voltage?
• What is the instantaneous value of the resistor at t =
0.4ms?

• The ac voltage across a 150Ω resistor is:

• 39sin(2π  103t) V. At what value of t does the current
through the resistor equal -0.26A?

AC Fundamentals 19
 CAPACITORS AND AC (1)

• AC current through a capacitor depends not only on the

voltage across it, but also on the frequency of that
voltage
• The property of a capacitor that causes it to resist the
flow of ac current through it is called capacitive
reactance, denoted by XC. Its units are also Ohms
• XC = 1/ωC = 1/2πfC Ohms
• XC is inversely proportional to frequency
• The greater the frequency, the smaller the reactance
and thus the greater the current through the capacitor
• The lower the frequency, the greater the reactance
• Graph of reactance XC v frequency f

XC
Capacitor is an open
circuit when dc voltage
XC = 1/2πfC
is connected across it
i.e. f = 0
V p volts
Ip   amps
0 f X C ohms
I p  V pC  V p 2fC

AC Fundamentals 20
 CAPACITORS AND AC (2)

• Example: The ac voltage across a 0.5F capacitor is:

• v(t) = 16sin(2  103t) V
• What is the capacitive reactance of the capacitor?
• What is the peak value of the current through it?
• Example: The ac current through a 20F capacitor is
i(t) = 3sin(800t) A. What is the peak voltage across the
capacitor?

• The peak current through a capacitor does not occur at

the same instant of time that the voltage across it
reaches its peak value
• The current through a capacitor leads the voltage
across it by 90°
• vC(t) = Vpsin(ωt + )V
• iC(t) = Ip sin(ωt +  + 90°)A
• Example: The voltage across a 0.01F capacitor is
vC(t) = 240sin(1.25104t -30°)V. Write the mathematical
expression for the current through it.

AC Fundamentals 21
 INDUCTORS AND AC

• Inductance resists or impedes the flow of ac current

• Property called inductive reactance XL where:
• XL = ωL = 2πfL ohms; waveform:

XL (Ω)

XL

f
• XL directly proportional to frequency
• XL decreases with frequency, approaching 0Ω as
frequency approaches zero (dc)
• Inductor is a short circuit when a dc voltage is
connected across it
• Ohm’s Law: Ip = Vp/XL amperes
• Voltage across inductor leads current through it by 90°
• iL(t) = Ipsin(ωt + ); vL(t) = Vpsin(ωt +  + 90°)
• Example: The current through an 80mH is 0.1sin(400t-
25°)A. Write the mathematical expression for the
voltage

AC Fundamentals 22
 AVERAGE POWER

• The power at any instant in

1 2
time, instantaneous Pavg  I p R watts
power: 2
• p(t) = v(t)i(t) = [i(t)]2R = Pavg  I eff2 R watts
[v(t)]2/R
• More useful measure is V p2
average power, which is Pavg  watts
the average of the 2R
instantaneous power over Veff2
a period of time Pavg  watts
R
• Example: Find the
average power dissipated Vp I p
through a 50Ω with a
Pavg  watts
2
voltage of 12sin(377t)V
across it. Use all the Pavg  Veff I eff watts
equations on the left.

AC Fundamentals 23