Analog Meters

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The measurement of a given quantity is the result of comparison between the

quantity to be measured and a definite standard. The instruments which are used
for such measurements are called measuring instruments. The three basic
quantities in the electrical measurement are current, voltage and power. The
measurement of these quantities is important as it is used for obtaining
measurement of some other quantity or used to test the performance of some
electronic circuits or components etc.
2.1 INTRODUCTION CONT’D

The necessary requirement for any measuring instrument are:

1) With the introduction of the instrument in the circuit, the circuit conditions
should not be altered. Thus the quantity to be measured should not get
affected due to the instrument used.
2) The power consumed by the instrument for their operation should be as small
as possible.
2.1 INTRODUCTION CONT’D

The instrument which measures the current flowing in the circuit is called
ammeter while the instrument which measures the voltage across any two points
of a circuit is called voltmeter. But there is no fundamental difference in the
operating principle of analog voltmeter and ammeter. The action of almost all the
analog ammeters and voltmeter depends on the deflecting torque produced by
an electric current. In ammeters such a torque is proportional to the current to the
current to be measured. In voltmeters this torque is decided by a current which is
proportional to the voltage to be measured. Thus all the analog ammeters and
voltmeters are basically current measuring devices. The instrument which are
used to measure the power are called power meters or wattmeters.
 2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENT

Electrical measuring instruments are mainly classified as:

a) Indicating instrument : These instruments makes use of a dial and pointer for showing or
indicating magnitude of unknown quantity. The example are ammeter, voltmeter etc.
b) Recording instruments : These instruments give a continuous record of the given electrical
quantity which is being measured over a specific period.

The example are various types of recorders. In such recording instruments, the readings are recorded by
drawing the graph. The pointer of such instruments is provided with a marker i.e. pen or pencil, which
moves on graph paper as per the reading. The X-Y plotter is the best example of such an instrument.
c) Integrating instruments : These instruments measure the total quantity of electricity
delivered over period of time. For example a household energy meter register number of
revolution made by the disc to give the total energy delivered, with the help of counting
mechanism consisting of dials and pointers.
2.3 ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT

   In case of measuring instruments, the effect of unknown quantity is converted

into a mechanical force which is transmitted to the pointer which moves over a
calibrated scale. The moving system of such instrument is mounted on a pivoted
spindle. For satisfactory operation of any indicating instrument, following
systems must be present in an instrument.

1) Deflecting system producing deflecting torque

2) Controlling system producing controlling torque
3) Damping system producing damping torque

Let us see the various ways in which these torques are obtain in indicating
instruments
2.4 DEFLECTING SYSTEM

   In most of the indicating instruments the mechanical force proportional to the

quantity to be measured is generated. This force or torque deflects the pointer. The
system which produces such a deflecting torque is called deflecting system and the
torque is denoted as The deflecting torque overcomes,

1. The inertia of the moving system

2. The controlling torque provided by controlling system
3. The damping torque provided by damping system

The deflecting system uses on of the following effect produced by current or

voltage to produce deflecting torque
2.4 DEFLECTING SYSTEM CONT’D

Magnetic Effect: When a current carrying conductor is placed in uniform

magnetic field, it experiences a force which cause to move it. This effect is mostly
used in many instruments like moving iron attraction and repulsion type,
permanent magnet moving coil instrument etc.
Thermal Effect: The current to be measured is passed through a small element
which heats it to cause rise in temperature which is converted to an e.m.f. by
thermocouple attached to it.
When two dissimilar metals are connected end to end to form a closed loop and
two junctions formed are maintained at different temperatures, then e.m.f. is
induced which causes the flow of current through the closed circuit which is called a
thermocouple.
2.4 DEFLECTING SYSTEM CONT’D

Electrostatic Effects: When a non-magnetic conducting disc is placed in a

magnetic field produced by electromagnets which are excited by alternating
currents, an e.m.f. is induced in it.
If a closed path is provided, there is a flow of current in the disc. The interaction
between induced currents and the alternating magnetic fields exerts a force on the
disc which causes to move it. This interaction is called an induced effect. This
principles is mainly used in energymeters.
2.4 DEFLECTING SYSTEM CONT’D

Hall Effects: if a bar of semiconducting material is placed in uniform magnetic

field and if the bar carries current, then an e.m.f. is produced between two edges
of conductor. The magnitude of the e.m.f. depends on flux density of magnetic
field, current passing through the conducting bar and hall effect co-efficient which
is constant for a given semiconductor. This effect is mainly used in flux-meter.
Thus the deflecting system provides the deflecting torque or operating torque
for movement of pointer from its zero position. It acts as the prime mover for the
deflection of pointer.
2.5 CONTROLLING SYSTEM

This system should provide a force so that current or any other electrical
quantity will produce deflection of the pointer proportional to its magnitude. The
important functions of this system are,
1) It produces a force equal and opposite to the deflecting force in order to
make the deflection of pointer at a definite magnitude. If this system is
absent, then the pointer will swing beyond its final steady position for the
given magnitude and deflection will become indefinite.
2) It brings the moving system back to zero position when the force which
causes the movement of the moving system is removed. It will never come
back to its zero position in the absence of controlling system.
Controlling torque is generally provided by springs. Sometimes gravity control
is also used.
 2.5.1 GRAVITY CONTROL

  This type of control consists of a small weight

attached to the moving system whose position is
adjustable. This weight produces a controlling
torque due to gravity. This weight is called control
weight. The fig. 2.5.1 shows the gravity control
system. At the zero position of the pointer, the
controlling torque is zero. This position is shown as
position A the of the weight in the Fig. 2.5.2. If the
system deflects, the weight position also changes,
as shown in the Fig. 2.5.2.

The system deflects through an angle θ. The

control weights acts at a distance l from the
center. The component W sin θ of this weight tries
to restore the pointer back to the zero position.
This is nothing but the controlling torque .
2.5.1 GRAVITY CONTROL CONT’D
Thus,
Controlling torque 𝑇  𝑐 =𝑊 sin 𝜃 𝑥 𝑙

 
Here 𝐾
  =𝑊 /¿
¿  𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Now generally all meters are current sensing meters where,
Deflecting torque 𝑇  𝑑= 𝐾 𝑡 𝐼
𝑇  𝑐 =𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑡h𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
where 𝑇  𝑑=𝑇 𝑐
In equilibrium position
𝐾
  𝑡 𝐼 = 𝐾 sin 𝜃
 𝐼 ∝ sin 𝜃
Thus the deflection is proportional to current i.e. quantity to be measured
2.5.1 GRAVITY CONTROL CONT’D
Key Point   But as it is a function of the scale for the instrument using gravity control is not uniform

Its advantages are:

1) Its performance is not time dependent
2) It is simple and cheap
3) The controlling torque can be varied by adjusting the position of the control weight
4) Its performance is not temperature dependent

Its disadvantages are:

5) The scale is nonuniform causing problems to record accurate readings
6) The system must be used in vertical position only and must be properly levelled. Otherwise it may
cause serious errors in the measurement
7) As delicate and proper levelling required, in general it is not used for indicating instruments and
portable instruments.
2.5.2 SPRING CONTROL

Two hair springs are attached to the moving system which exerts controlling
torque. To employ spring control to an instrument, the following requirements are
essential.
1) The spring should be non-magnetic
2) The spring should be free from mechanical stress
3) The spring should have a small resistance, sufficient cross-sectional area
4) It should have low resistance temperature co-efficient.
 2.5.2 SPRING CONTROL CONT’D

The arrangement of the spring is shown in the Fig.

2.5.3

The springs are made up of non-magnetic

materials like silicon bronze hard rolled silver or
copper, platinum silver and german silver. For most
of the instruments, phosphor bronze spiral springs
are provided. Flat spiral springs are used in almost all
indicating instruments

The inner end of the spring is attached to the

spindle while the outer end is attached to a lever or
arm which is actuated by a set of screw mounted at
the front of the instrument. So zero setting can be
easily done. The controlling torque provided by the
instrument is directly proportional to the angular
deflection of the pointer
2.5.2 SPRING CONTROL CONT’D
The controlling torque produced by spiral spring is given by
  𝐸𝑏 𝑡 3
𝑇 𝑐= 𝜃=𝐾 𝑠 𝜃
12 𝐿
 

  𝑐 ∝𝜃
𝑇
Now deflecting torque is proportional to current
  𝑑∝𝐼
𝑇
At equilibrium, 𝑇
  𝑑=𝑇 𝑐
 𝐼 ∝𝜃
2.5.2 SPRING CONTROL CONT’D
Key Point Thus the deflection is proportional to the current. Hence the scale of the instrument using
spring control is uniform

When the current is removed, due to spring force the pointer comes back to
initial position. The spring control is very popular and is used in almost all indicating
instruments
 2.5.3 COMPARISON OF CONTROLLING SYSTEMS

Sr.
Sr.
No. Gravity control Spring control
No.
Adjustable small weight is used which produces the
1. Adjustable
controlling small weight is used which produces the
torque. Two hair springs are used which exerts controlling torque.
1. controlling torque. Two hair springs are used which exerts controlling torque.
2. Controlling torque can be varied. Controlling torque is fixe
2. Controlling torque can be varied. Controlling torque is fixe
3. The performance is not temperature dependent. The performance is temperature dependent.
3.
4. The
The performance is not temperature dependent.
scale is nonuniform. The
The performance is temperature dependent.
scale is uniform.
4.
5. The scale is nonuniform.
controlling torque is proportional to . The scale is uniform.
controlling torque is proportional to θ.
6.
5. The readings can not be taken accurately The
The readings can
controlling be taken
torque very accurately
is proportional to θ.
7.
6. The
The system
readingsmust be used
can not in vertical
be taken position only.
accurately The
The system
readingsneed nottaken
can be be necessarily in vertical position
very accurately
8. Proportional levelling is required as gravity control. The levelling is not required.
7. The system must be used in vertical position only. The system need not be necessarily in vertical position
9. Simple, cheap but delicate. Simple, rigid but costlier compared to gravity control.
8. Proportional levelling
Rarely used for is required
indicating as gravity control.
and portable The levelling is not required.
10. instruments. Very popularly used in most of the instruments
9. Simple, cheap but delicate. Simple, rigid but costlier compared to gravity control.

10. Rarely used for indicating and portable Very popularly used in most of the instruments
instruments.
2.5.4 TYPES OF SUPPORTS

In any indicating instruments, the pointer attains the final position when
controlling torque equals the deflecting torque.
As the friction increases, the deflecting torque reduces and meter shows less
deflection causing the error. If the weight and inertia of the moving system is high
then also the deflection torque becomes less and error occurs. Hence at the time of
designing and manufacturing friction is made as small as possible and weight is also
kept small. Thus the torque to weight ratio is kept very high for the indicating
instrument. But this ratio can be adjusted only at the time of manufacturing hence
it is aspect of quality of design.
2.5.4 TYPES OF SUPPORTS CONT’D

The types of supports used are,

Suspension system: The suspension is provided when the deflecting torque is
less than the moment of inertia of the system. It is in the form of loosely coiled
spiral of tine wire.

This support reduces the power consumption and friction. But it requires proper
levelling, careful handling and the protection from mechanical shocks. It is used in
vibrational galvanometers.
 2.5.4 TYPES OF SUPPORTS CONT’D

 Pivot jewel bearing system: This is

used for getting high torque to weight
ratio. It is used in PMMC instruments. Its
construction is shown in the Fig. 2.5.4
2.5.4 TYPES OF SUPPORTS CONT’D

The contact surface between pivot and jewel is made as a point which is made
smooth. This reduces pressure and hence friction. Pivot is conical shaped made up
of steel.
Its advantages are,
1. Robust
2. No levelling nessaray
3. Very low friction
4. High torque to weight ratio

Its disadvantages are,

5. Very careful manufacturing is necessary
6. Cost is high
2.6 DAMPING SYSTEM

The deflecting torque provides some deflection and controlling torque acts in
the opposite direction to that of deflecting torque. So before coming to the rest,
pointer always oscillates due to inertia, about the equilibrium position. Unless
pointer rests, final reading can not be obtained. So to bring the pointer to rest
within short time, damping system is required. The system should provide a
damping torque only when the moving system is in motion. Damping torque is
proportional to velocity of the moving system but it does not depend on operating
current. It must not affect controlling torque or increase the friction.
2.6 DAMPING SYSTEM CONT’D

The quickness with which the moving system settles to the final steady position
depends on relative damping. If the moving system reaches to its final position
rapidly but smoothly without oscillations, the instrument is said to be critically
damped. If the instrument is under damped, the moving system will oscillate about
the final steady position with a decreasing amplitude and will take sometime to
come to rest. While the instrument is said to be over damped if the moving system
moves slowly to its final steady position . In over damped case the response of the
system is very low and sluggish. In practice slightly under damped systems. Are
preferred. The time response of damping system for various types of damping
conditions is show in the Fig. 2.6.1.
2.6 DAMPING SYSTEM CONT’D

The following methods are used to produce damping torque

1) Air friction damping
2) Fluid friction damping
3) Eddy current damping.
2.6.1 AIR FRICTION DAMPING

This arrangement consists of a light aluminium piston which is attached to the

moving system, as shown in the Fig. 2.6.2.
2.6.1 AIR FRICTION DAMPING CONT’D

The piston moves in a fixed air chamber. It is close to one end. The clearance
between and wall chambers is uniform and small. The piston reciprocates in the
chamber when there are oscillations. When piston moves into the chamber, air
inside is compressed and pressure of air developed due to friction oppose the
motion of pointer. There is also opposition to motion of moving system when
piston moves out of the chamber. Thus the oscillations and the overshoot gets
reduced due to and fro motion of the piston in the chamber, providing necessary
damping torque. This helps in settling down the pointer to its final steady position
very quickly.
 2.6.2 FLUID FRICTION DAMPING

Fluid friction damping may be used in some

instruments. The method is similar to air friction
damping, only air is replaced by working fluid. The
friction between the disc and fluid is used for
opposing motion. Damping force due to fluid is
greater than that of air due to more viscosity. The
disc is also called vane.
2.6.2 FLUID FRICTION DAMPING CONT’D

The arrangement is shown in the Fig.2.6.3. It consists of a vane attached to the

spindle which is completely dipped in the oil. The frictional force between oil and
the vane is used to produce the damping torque, which oppose the oscillating
behaviour of the pointer.
The advantages of this method are:
1) Due to more viscosity of fluid, more damping is provided.
2) The oil can also be used for insulation purposes.
3) Due to up thrust of oil, the load on the bearings is reduced, thus
reducing the frictional errors.
The disadvantages of this method are:
1. This can be only used for the instruments which are in vertical position.
2. Due to oil leakage, the instruments can not be kept clean.
 2.6.3 EDDY CURRENT DAMPING

This is the most effective way of providing

damping. It is based on the Faraday’s law and
Lenz’ law. When a conductor moves in a
magnetic field cutting the flux, e.m.f. gets
induced in it. And direction of this e.m.f. is so as
to oppose the cause producing it.

In this method, an aluminium disc is

connected to the spindle. The arrangement of
disc is such that when it rotates, it cuts the
magnetic flux lines of a permanent magnet.
The arrangement is shown in the Fig. 2.6.4.
2.6.3 EDDY CURRENT DAMPING CONT’D

When the pointer oscillates, aluminium disc rotates under the influence of
magnetic field of damping magnet. So disc cuts the flux which causes and induced
e.m.f. in the disc. The disc is a closed path hence induced e.m.f. circulates current
through the disc called eddy current. The direction of such eddy current is so as
oppose the cause producing it . The cause is relative motion between disc and field.
Thus it produces an opposing torque so as to reduce the oscillations of pointer. This
brings pointer to rest quickly. This is most effective and efficient method of
damping
 2.7 PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL INSTRUMENTS (PMMC)

The permanent magnet moving coil

instruments are most accurate type of d.c.
measurement. The action of these
measurement is based on the motoring
principle. When a current carrying coil is placed
in the magnetic field produced by permanent
magnet, the instrument is called permanent
magnet moving coil instrument. This basic
principle is called D’Arsonval principle. The
amount of force experienced by the coil is
proportional to the current passing through the
coil
2.7 PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL INSTRUMENTS (PMMC) CONT’D

The PMMC instrument is shown in the Fig. 2.7.1.

The moving coil is either rectangular of circular in shape. It has number of turns
of fine wire. The coil is suspended so that it is free to turn about its vertical axis. The
coil is placed in uniform, horizontal and radial magnetic field of a permanent
magnet in the shape of a horse-shoe. The iron core is spherical if coil is circular and
is cylindrical if the coil is rectangular. Due to iron core, the deflecting torque
increases, increasing the sensitivity of the instrument.
The controlling torque is provided by two phosphor bronze hair springs.
The damping torque is provided by eddy current damping. It is obtained by
movement of the aluminium former, moving in the magnetic field of the
permanent magnet.
 2.7 PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL INSTRUMENTS (PMMC) CONT’D

The pointer is carried by the spindle and it

moves over a graduated scale. The pointer has light
weight so that it can deflect rapidly. The mirror is
placed below the pointer to get the accurate reading
by removing the parallax. The weight of the
instrument is normally counter balanced by the
weights situated diametrically opposite and rigidly
connected to it. The scale markings of the basic d.c.
PMMC instrument are usually linearly spaced as the
deflecting torque and hence the pointer deflection
are directly proportional to the current passing
through the coil.
2.7 PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL INSTRUMENTS (PMMC) CONT’D

In a practical PMMC instrument, a Y shaped member is attached to the fixed

end of the front control spring. An eccentric pin through the instrument case
engages the Y shaped member so that the zero position of the pointer can be
adjusted from outside.
2.7.1

   The equation for the developed torque can be obtained from the basic law of
the electromagnetic torque. The deflecting torque is given by,

where