CLASS NOTES ON

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION

FOR

4th SEMESTER OF

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

(B.TECH PROGRAMME)

UNIT-1

1
 SYLLABUS

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION (2-0-0)

➢ Introduction: Objective, scope and outcome of the course.

➢ Measuring Instruments: Moving coil, moving iron, electrodynamic and induction
instruments-construction, operation, torque equation and errors. Applications of
instruments for measurement of current, voltage, single-phase power and single-phase
energy. Errors in wattmeter and energy meter and their compensation and adjustment.
Testing and calibration of single-phase energy meter by phantom loading.
➢ Polyphase Metering: Blondel's Theorem for n-phase, p-wire system. Measurement of power and
reactive kVA in 3-phase balanced and unbalanced systems: One-wattmeter, two- wattmeter and
three-wattmeter methods. 3-phase induction type energy meter. Instrument Transformers:
Construction and operation of current and potential transformers. Ratio and phase angle errors
and their minimization. Effect of variation of power factor, secondary burden and frequency on
errors. Testing of CTs and PTs. Applications of CTs and PTs for the measurement of current,
voltage, power and energy.
➢ Potentiometers: Construction, operation and standardization of DC potentiometers– slide wire
and Crompton potentiometers. Use of potentiometer for measurement of resistance and voltmeter
and ammeter calibrations. Volt ratio boxes. Construction, operation and standardization of AC
potentiometer in-phase and quadrature potentiometers. Applications of AC potentiometers.
➢ Measurement of Resistances: Classification of resistance. Measurement of medium resistances –
ammeter and voltmeter method, substitution method, Wheatstone bridge method. Measurement
of low resistances – Potentiometer method and Kelvin's double bridge method. Measurement of
high resistance: Price's Guardwire method. Measurement of earth resistance.
➢ AC Bridges: Generalized treatment of four-arm AC bridges. Sources and detectors. Maxwell's
bridge, Hay's bridge and Anderson bridge for self inductance measurement. Heaviside's bridge
for mutual inductance measurement. De Sauty Bridge for capacitance measurement. Wien's
bridge for capacitance and frequency measurements. Sources of error in bridge measurements
and precautions. Screening of bridge components. Wagner earth device.
TEXT BOOKS
[1]. A Course in Elec. & Electronics Measurements & Instrumentation: A K.
Sawhney [2]. Modern Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques:
Helfrick & Cooper [3]. Electrical Measurement and Measuring Instruments -
Golding & Waddis

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Course Outcome For Electronic Measurement & Instrumentation

CO1 Acquire detailed knowledge of different-different instruments.

CO2 Develop the ability to select measuring instruments for a given application.
CO3 Design the different AC and DC bridges and the application of different bridges for
measurements

3
4
 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

1.1 Definition of instruments

An instrument is a device in which we can determine the magnitude or value of the quantity
to be measured. The measuring quantity can be voltage, current, power and energy etc. Generally
instruments are classified in to two categories.

Instrument

Absolute Instrument Secondary Instrument

1.2 Absolute instrument

An absolute instrument determines the magnitude of the quantity to be measured in terms of the
instrument parameter. This instrument is really used, because each time the value of the measuring
quantities varies. So we have to calculate the magnitude of the measuring quantity, analytically
which is time consuming. These types of instruments are suitable for laboratory use. Example:
Tangent galvanometer.

1.3 Secondary instrument

This instrument determines the value of the quantity to be measured directly. Generally these
instruments are calibrated by comparing with another standard secondary instrument.
Examples of such instruments are voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter etc. Practically
secondary instruments are suitable for measurement.

Secondary instruments

Indicating instruments Recording Integrating Electromechanically

Indicating instruments

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 1.3.1 Indicating instrument

This instrument uses a dial and pointer to determine the value of measuring quantity. The pointer
indication gives the magnitude of measuring quantity.

1.3.2 Recording instrument

This type of instruments records the magnitude of the quantity to be measured continuously over
a specified period of time.

1.3.3 Integrating instrument

This type of instrument gives the total amount of the quantity to be measured over a specified
period of time.
1.3.4 Electromechanical indicating instrument

For satisfactory operation electromechanical indicating instrument, three forces are necessary.
They are
(a) Deflecting force

(b) Controlling force

(c)Damping force

1.4 Deflecting force

When there is no input signal to the instrument, the pointer will be at its zero position. To deflect
the pointer from its zero position, a force is necessary which is known as deflecting force. A system
which produces the deflecting force is known as a deflecting system. Generally a deflecting system
converts an electrical signal to a mechanical force.

Fig. 1.1 Pointer scale

6
1.4.1 Magnitude effect

When a current passes through the coil (Fig.1.2), it produces a imaginary bar magnet. When a soft-
iron piece is brought near this coil it is magnetized. Depending upon the current direction the poles
are produced in such a way that there will be a force of attraction between the coil and the soft iron
piece. This principle is used in moving iron attraction type instrument.

Fig. 1.2

If two soft iron pieces are place near a current carrying coil there will be a force of repulsion
between the two soft iron pieces. This principle is utilized in the moving iron repulsion type
instrument.

1.4.2 Force between a permanent magnet and a current carrying coil

When a current carrying coil is placed under the influence of magnetic field produced by a
permanent magnet and a force is produced between them. This principle is utilized in the moving
coil type instrument.

Fig. 1.3

1.4.3 Force between two current carrying coil

When two current carrying coils are placed closer to each other there will be a force of repulsion
between them. If one coil is movable and other is fixed, the movable coil will move away from the
fixed one. This principle is utilized in electrodynamometer type instrument.

7
 Fig. 1.4

1.5 Controlling force

To make the measurement indicated by the pointer definite (constant) a force is necessary which
will be acting in the opposite direction to the deflecting force. This force is known as controlling
force. A system which produces this force is known as a controlled system. When the external
signal to be measured by the instrument is removed, the pointer should return back to the zero
position. This is possibly due to the controlling force and the pointer will be indicating a steady
value when the deflecting torque is equal to controlling torque.

Td (1.1)
Tc

1.5.1 Spring control

Two springs are attached on either end of spindle (Fig. 1.5).The spindle is placed in jewelled
bearing, so that the frictional force between the pivot and spindle will be minimum. Two springs
are provided in opposite direction to compensate the temperature error. The spring is made of
phosphorous bronze.

When a current is supply, the pointer deflects due to rotation of the spindle. While spindle is rotate,
the spring attached with the spindle will oppose the movements of the pointer. The torque produced
by the spring is directly proportional to the pointer deflection .

TC (1.2)

The deflecting torque produced Td proportional to ‘I’. When TC Td , the pointer will come to a

8
steady position. Therefore
(1.3)
I

9
 Fig. 1.5

Since, and I are directly proportional to the scale of such instrument which uses spring controlled
is uniform.
1.6 Damping force

The deflection torque and controlling torque produced by systems are electro mechanical.
Due to inertia produced by this system, the pointer oscillates about it final steady position before
coming to rest. The time required to take the measurement is more. To damp out the oscillation is
quickly, a damping force is necessary. This force is produced by different systems.

(a) Air friction damping

(b) Fluid friction damping
(c) Eddy current damping
1.6.1 Air friction damping

The piston is mechanically connected to a spindle through the connecting rod (Fig. 1.6). The
pointer is fixed to the spindle moves over a calibrated dial. When the pointer oscillates in clockwise
direction, the piston goes inside and the cylinder gets compressed. The air pushes the piston
upwards and the pointer tends to move in anticlockwise direction.

10
 Fig. 1.6

If the pointer oscillates in anticlockwise direction the piston moves away and the pressure of the
air inside cylinder gets reduced. The external pressure is more than that of the internal pressure.
Therefore the piston moves down wards. The pointer tends to move in clock wise direction.

1.6.2 Eddy current damping

Fig. 1.6 Disc type

An aluminum circular disc is fixed to the spindle (Fig. 1.6). This disc is made to move in the
magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet.

11
When the disc oscillates it cuts the magnetic flux produced by damping magnet. An emf is induced
in the circular disc by faradays law. Eddy currents are established in the disc since it has several
closed paths. By Lenz’s law, the current carrying disc produced a force in a direction opposite to
oscillating force. The damping force can be varied by varying the projection of the magnet over
the circular disc.

Fig. 1.6 Rectangular type

1.7 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) instrument

One of the most accurate type of instrument used for D.C. measurements is PMMC instrument.
Construction: A permanent magnet is used in this type instrument. Aluminum former is
provided in the cylindrical in between two poles of the permanent magnet (Fig. 1.7). Coils are
wound on the aluminum former which is connected with the spindle. This spindle is supported
with jeweled bearing. Two springs are attached on either end of the spindle. The terminals of the
moving coils are connected to the spring. Therefore the current flows through spring 1, moving
coil and spring 2.

Damping: Eddy current damping is used. This is produced by aluminum former.

Control: Spring control is used.

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 Fig. 1.7

Principle of operation
When D.C. supply is given to the moving coil, D.C. current flows through it. When the current
carrying coil is kept in the magnetic field, it experiences a force. This force produces a torque and
the former rotates. The pointer is attached with the spindle. When the former rotates, the pointer
moves over the calibrated scale. When the polarity is reversed a torque is produced in the opposite
direction. The mechanical stopper does not allow the deflection in the opposite direction. Therefore
the polarity should be maintained with PMMC instrument.
If A.C. is supplied, a reversing torque is produced. This cannot produce a continuous deflection.
Therefore this instrument cannot be used in A.C.

Torque developed by PMMC

Let Td =deflecting torque

TC = controlling torque
= angle of
deflection K=spring
constant b=width of
the coil

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 l=height of the coil or length of coil
N=No. of turns
I=current
B=Flux density
A=area of the coil
The force produced in the coil is given by
(1.4)
F BIL sin

When 90

For N turns, F NBIL (1.5)

Torque produced F distance (1.6)

Td r

Td NBIL b (1.7)
BINA

Td BANI (1.8)
Td I (1.9)
Advantages
✓ Torque/weight is high
✓ Power consumption is less
✓ Scale is uniform
✓ Damping is very effective
✓ Since operating field is very strong, the effect of stray field is negligible
✓ Range of instrument can be extended
Disadvantages
✓ Use only for D.C.
✓ Cost is high
✓ Error is produced due to ageing effect of PMMC
✓ Friction and temperature error are present

14
1.7.1 Extension of range of PMMC instrument
Case-I: Shunt
A low shunt resistance connected in parrel with the ammeter to extent the range of current. Large
current can be measured using low current rated ammeter by using a shunt.

Fig. 1.8

Let Rm =Resistance of meter

Rsh =Resistance of shunt

Im = Current through meter

Ish =current through shunt

I= current to be measure
Vm Vsh (1.10)

ImRm IshRsh

I
(1.11)
m
R
Is sh
R
h
m

Apply KCL at ‘P’ I Im (1.12)

Ish

Eqn (1.12) ÷ by Im
15
I Ish
1 (1.13)
Im Im

16
 I
1 (1.14)
Rm

Im Rsh

Rm

I Im 1 R (1.15)
sh
Rm

1 R is called multiplication factor

sh
Shunt resistance is made of manganin. This has least thermoelectric emf. The change is
resistance, due to change in temperature is negligible.

Case (II): Multiplier

A large resistance is connected in series with voltmeter is called multiplier (Fig. 1.9). A large
voltage can be measured using a voltmeter of small rating with a multiplier.

Fig. 1.9
Rm =resistance of meter
Let
Rse =resistance of multiplier

Vm =Voltage across meter

Vse = Voltage across series

resistance V= voltage to be measured

Im (1.16)
Ise

17
Vm (1.17)
Vse Rm
Rs
e

Vs (1.18)
e Rse
V Rm
m

18
 (1.19)
Apply KVL, V Vm
Vse

Eqn (1.19) ÷Vm

V Vse Rse

V 1 V 1R (1.20)
m m m
Rse

V Vm 1 R (1.21)
m
Rse

1 R Multiplication factor
m

1.8 Moving Iron (MI) instruments

One of the most accurate instrument used for both AC and DC measurement is moving iron
instrument. There are two types of moving iron instrument.
• Attraction type
• Repulsion type
1.8.1 Attraction type M.I. instrument
Construction:The moving iron fixed to the spindle is kept near the hollow fixed coil (Fig. 1.10).
The pointer and balance weight are attached to the spindle, which is supported with jeweled
bearing. Here air friction damping is used.

Principle of operation
The current to be measured is passed through the fixed coil. As the current is flow through the
fixed coil, a magnetic field is produced. By magnetic induction the moving iron gets magnetized.
The north pole of moving coil is attracted by the south pole of fixed coil. Thus the deflecting force
is produced due to force of attraction. Since the moving iron is attached with the spindle, the
spindle rotates and the pointer moves over the calibrated scale. But the force of attraction depends
on the current flowing through the coil.

Torque developed by M.I

19
Let ‘ ’ be the deflection corresponding to a current of ‘i’ amp
Let the current increases by di, the corresponding deflection is ‘ d ’

20
 Fig. 1.10
There is change in inductance since the position of moving iron change w.r.t the fixed
electromagnets.
Let the new inductance value be ‘L+dL’. The current change by ‘di’ is dt seconds.
Let the emf induced in the coil be ‘e’ volt.
d di
e (Li) L i (1.22)
dL

dt dt dt
Multiplying by ‘idt’ in equation (1.22)
di dL
e idt L idt i idt (1.23)

dt dt

e idt Lidi i2dL (1.24)

Eqn (1.24) gives the energy is used in to two forms. Part of energy is stored in the inductance.
Remaining energy is converted in to mechanical energy which produces deflection.

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 Fig. 1.11

22
Change in energy stored=Final energy-initial energy stored
1 1 2
(L dL)(i di)2 Li
2 2
1
{(L dL)(i2 di2 2idi)
Li2} 2
1
{(L dL)(i2 2idi)
Li 2} 2
1
{Li2 2Lidi i 2dL 2ididL
Li 2} 2
1
{2Lidi
2
i dL} 2 (1.25)
1 2
Lidi i dL
2 (1.26)
Mechanical work to move the pointer by d
Td d
By law of conservation of energy,
Electrical energy supplied=Increase in stored energy+ mechanical work done.
(1.27)
Input energy= Energy stored + Mechanical energy
1 2
Lidi i2dL Lidi i dL Td d
2 (1.28)
1 2
i dL Td d
2

1 2 dL (1.29)
T i
d
2 d
At steady state condition
Td TC
1 2 dL (1.30)
i K
2
d
1 2 dL (1.31)
i
2K d

23
 i2 (1.32)

When the instruments measure AC, i2rms

Scale of the instrument is non uniform.

24
Advantages
✓ MI can be used in AC and DC
✓ It is cheap
✓ Supply is given to a fixed coil, not in moving coil.
✓ Simple construction
✓ Less friction error.
Disadvantages
✓ It suffers from eddy current and hysteresis error
✓ Scale is not uniform
✓ It consumed more power
✓ Calibration is different for AC and DC operation
1.8.2 Repulsion type moving iron instrument
Construction:The repulsion type instrument has a hollow fixed iron attached to it (Fig. 1.12). The
moving iron is connected to the spindle. The pointer is also attached to the spindle in supported
with jeweled bearing.
Principle of operation: When the current flows through the coil, a magnetic field is produced by
it. So both fixed iron and moving iron are magnetized with the same polarity, since they are kept
in the same magnetic field. Similar poles of fixed and moving iron get repelled. Thus the deflecting
torque is produced due to magnetic repulsion. Since moving iron is attached to spindle, the spindle
will move. So that pointer moves over the calibrated scale.
Damping: Air friction damping is used to reduce the oscillation.
Control: Spring control is used.

25
 Fig. 1.12

1.9 Dynamometer (or) Electromagnetic moving coil instrument (EMMC)

Fig. 1.13

26
This instrument can be used for the measurement of voltage, current and power. The difference
between the PMMC and dynamometer type instrument is that the permanent magnet is replaced
by an electromagnet.

Construction:A fixed coil is divided in to two equal half. The moving coil is placed between the
two half of the fixed coil. Both the fixed and moving coils are air cored. So that the hysteresis
effect will be zero. The pointer is attached with the spindle. In a non metallic former the moving
coil is wounded.
Control: Spring control is used.
Damping: Air friction damping is used.
Principle of operation:

When the current flows through the fixed coil, it produced a magnetic field, whose flux density is
proportional to the current through the fixed coil. The moving coil is kept in between the fixed
coil. When the current passes through the moving coil, a magnetic field is produced by this coil.

The magnetic poles are produced in such a way that the torque produced on the moving coil
deflects the pointer over the calibrated scale. This instrument works on AC and DC. When AC
voltage is applied, alternating current flows through the fixed coil and moving coil. When the
current in the fixed coil reverses, the current in the moving coil also reverses. Torque remains in
the same direction. Since the current i1 and i2 reverse simultaneously. This is because the fixed and
moving coils are either connected in series or parallel.

Torque developed by EMMC

Fig. 1.14

27
Let
L1=Self inductance of fixed coil
L2= Self inductance of moving coil
M=mutual inductance between fixed coil and moving coil
i1=current through fixed coil
i2=current through moving coil
Total inductance of system,

Hence the deflection of pointer is proportional to the current passing through fixed coil and
moving coil.

28
1.9.1 Extension of EMMC instrument
Case-I Ammeter connection
Fixed coil and moving coil are connected in parallel for ammeter connection. The coils are
designed such that the resistance of each branch is same.
Therefore
I1 I2 I

Fig. 1.15

To extend the range of current a shunt may be connected in parallel with the meter. The value
Rsh is designed such that equal current flows through moving coil and fixed coil.

Td I1I2 (1.41)
dM
d

Or Td I2 (1.42)
dM
d
TC (1.43)
K

I2 (1.44)
dM

Kd

I 2 (Scale is not uniform) (1.45)

29
Case-II Voltmeter connection

Fixed coil and moving coil are connected in series for voltmeter connection. A multiplier may be
connected in series to extent the range of voltmeter.

30
 Fig.1.16

Case-III As wattmeter

When the two coils are connected to parallel, the instrument can be used as a wattmeter. Fixed coil
is connected in series with the load. Moving coil is connected in parallel with the load. The moving
coil is known as voltage coil or pressure coil and fixed coil is known as current coil.

Fig. 1.17

31
Assume that the supply voltage is sinusoidal. If the impedance of the coil is neglected in
comparison with the resistance ‘R’. The current,

32
 (1.66)
(Td )avg KVI cos

TC (1.67)

KVI cos (1.68)

VI cos (1.69)
Advantages
✓ It can be used for voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter
✓ Hysteresis error is nill
✓ Eddy current error is nill
✓ Damping is effective
✓ It can be measure correctively and accurately the rms value of the voltage

Disadvantages
✓ Scale is not uniform
✓ Power consumption is high(because of high resistance )
✓ Cost is more
✓ Error is produced due to frequency, temperature and stray field.
✓ Torque/weight is low.(Because field strength is very low)

Errors in PMMC
✓ The permanent magnet produced error due to ageing effect. By heat treatment, this error
can be eliminated.
✓ The spring produces error due to ageing effect. By heat treating the spring the error can be
eliminated.
✓ When the temperature changes, the resistance of the coil vary and the spring also produces
error in deflection. This error can be minimized by using a spring whose temperature co-
efficient is very low.
1.10 Difference between attraction and repulsion type instrument
An attraction type instrument will usually have a lower inductance, compare to repulsion type
instrument. But in other hand, repulsion type instruments are more suitable for economical
production in manufacture and nearly uniform scale is more easily obtained. They are therefore
much more common than attraction type.

33
INDUCTION TYPE INSTRUMENTS

11.1 Working Principle of Induction Type Instruments

Consider an aluminum disc placed the between the pole of an electromagnet, as shown in fig. 11.1. Let
the flux produced by flow of current of I Amperes through the coil be F and this flux will lag behind I,
by a small angle β as shown in vector diagram.

Fig. 11.1 Working principle of induction type instruments

Fig. 11.2 Vector diagram

Since the aluminum disc act as a short circuited secondary of the transformer, therefore, an e.m.f., (say
e volts) lagging behind the flux F by �radians will be induced in it. As a result of this induced e.m.f.,
the eddy current (I�) starts flowing in the disc. Since the disk is purely resistive therefore the eddy
current will be in phase with induced e.m.f. (e) will lag behind the main flux F by � radians. As the
component of eddy current (I�) along flux F is zero, therefore torque produced is zero. It can be proved
as follows.

Let the instantaneous values of flux and eddy current be given by F = Fmax Sin θ and i = Imax Sin (θ �
α). Where α is the phase angle between the induced eddy current and flux (F).
Instantaneous torque α F i

����������

34
����������

����������

����������
���������� α Fi Cos α

Where F and i are r.m.s. values.

Since in single phase induction type instruments the angle α between main flux F and eddy current I�
is �and Cos �is zero, therefore torque produced is zero. Hence to obtain the resultant torque it is
necessary to produce an eddy current which is either appreciable less than or appreciable more than
�radians, out of phase with the flux which it reacts. Several arrangements are possible but here we will
discuss about the descriptions of the two of these.

11.2 Pole Shaded Method

As shown in Fig. 11.3, in this method, the working current is passed through the coil of an electromagnet
which has an air gap in one limb. Permanent magnet is used for providing damping torque. The
aluminum disc is mounted on pivots and jewel bearings.

Fig. 11.3 Pole shaded method

Fig. 11.4 Vector diagram

35
Two spiral springs are employed to provide controlling torque, wounded in direction opposite to each
other if the instrument is used as Voltmeter, Ammeter and Wattmeter etc. One half of the pole face is
surrounded by a copper band in order to split the working flux into two different paths. The copper
shading band acts as a single turn short circuited secondary winding of the transformer. The spiral
springs, pointer and scale etc. have been omitted for simplicity.

11.2.1 Theory

Let the total flux produced in the magnetic core be F Weber. Due to shading of pole, this flux will split
up into two fluxes i.e. flux through un-shaded portion and other through the shaded portion. Suppose
the flux F1 be the flux of the shaded portion of the pole. This flux F1 will induce an e.m.f. in the copper
ring, which will lag the flux F1 by 90�, as shown in Fig. 11.4. The induced e.m.f. will force a current
say i to flow in the copper ring which will be lagging behind the flux F1 by 900. The current flowing in
the copper ring will produce its own magnetic field say F�2 in phase with current i. The flux given by
the shaded portion of the pole will be the vector sum of F1 and F�2 which is equal to F2 lagging behind
flux F1 by an angle θ and its value should be 400 to 600 for producing effective deflecting torque.

Let the flux F1 and F2 are the fluxes passing through the shaded and un-shaded portions of the pole
respectively induce e.m.fs. e1 and e2 in the disc, each of which is 900 in phase behind the fluxes
responsible for inducing it. These induced e.m.fs; will induce eddy currents (say i1 and i2) in the disc
lagging by a small angle (say α) behind its voltage due to the inductance of the path in the disc.

Fig. 11.5 Vector diagram

From Fig. 11.5, it is obvious that each of the current i1 and i2 has a component in phase with the other
flux such i1′ and i2′. Hence two torques are acting in a directions having angle θ are produced in the
instrument. Resultant of these two torques, provides an operating or deflecting torque.

11.3 Two Pole Method

This method is also known as split phase method. In this method, two laminated magnets A and B are
placed near to each other with aluminum (Al) disc in between and a non inductive resistance R is
connected in series with the magnetizing coil of magnet A and an inductive coil L is connected in series
with the magnetizing coil of magnet B, as shown in Fig. 11.6.

36
 Fig. 11.6 Two pole method (split phase)

Hence there will be two fluxes having phase difference of less than 90� with each other, acting on the
disc which will produce a resultant torque in the aluminium disc.

Let the flux produced by the magnet A and B is F1 and F2 respectively. F2 is lagging F1 by an angle θ as
shown in Fig. 11.5. Hence an operating or deflecting torque will be produced as explained above in case
of shaded pole method.

INDUCTION TYPE VOLTMETER AND AMMETER

12.1 Shaded Pole Type Voltmeter

A volt meter is an instrument used to measure the potential difference between the two points in an
electric circuit. In analog voltmeters, the pointer moves over a calibrated scale in proportion to potential
difference across the points where as in case of digital voltmeters, it displays numerical values with the
help of analog to digital converter. The induction type voltmeter operates on the either shaded pole
method or on two pole method�s working principle as explained in Lesson 11.

Fig. 12.1 Shaded pole type voltmeter

A non inductive high resistance is also inserted in series with the shunt coil and is connected across the
supply, whose potential difference has to be measured. Since the voltmeters are connected across the
supply, so the current flowing through coil is very small of the order of 5 to 10 mA. The spindle of
37
aluminum disc is provided with a pointer moving over a calibrated scale in terms of voltage. Spiral
springs are provided on both the ends of spindle for providing controlling torque. Permanent magnet (C-
magnet) is used to provide damping torque on the spindle. As the instrument is provided with spiral
springs, to provide controlling torque, the scale of the instrument is uniform because in such instrument
this torque is directly proportional to angle of deflection of the pointer. Spiral springs, pointer and
damping magnets are omitted for clear understanding of the figure. For detail working of the instrument,
please refer to working principle of induction type instruments described in Lesson 11.

12.2 Split Phase Ammeter

An ammeter is always connected in series with load current directly or through CT (Current
Transformer). As shown in Fig. 12.2, both the windings on the two laminated electromagnets A and B
are connected in series but winding is shunted by a resistance R with the result of which, the current in
this winding lags with respect to the total current (I). Hence the necessary phase angle (α) required
between two fluxes is produced by the laminated electromagnets A and B.

Fig. 12.2 Split phase induction type ammeter

The operating principle of the induction type instrument is based on the two pole method as discussed
in Lesson 11. Two fluxes produced by laminated magnet A and B are focused upon the aluminum disc,
having a phase angle between them required for producing a resultant torque in the spindle of the moving
system. Being a spring control based controlling torque, the scale is uniform and the deflecting torque is
directly proportional to square the load current. Eddy current damping is used to provide necessary
damping torque by a permanent magnet. Spiral springs, pointer and damping magnets are omitted for
clear understanding of the Fig. 12.2.

12.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Induction Type Instruments

Advantages
(a) Damping is very much effective and efficient.
(b) Full scale deflection more than 200� can be obtained.
Disadvantages

(a) Power consumption is large and hence not recommended where continuous monitoring of ac
quantities is required.
38
(b) Variation in temperature and frequency may cause serious errors if necessary compensations
are not provided.
(c) As these instruments are based on principle of induction, they can be used on AC supply
only.

12.4 Compensation for Frequency and Temperature Errors

12.4.1 Compensation for variation in frequency

Variation in frequency causes serious errors because deflecting torque is directly proportional to
frequency and also the value of impedance (Z) and Cos α depends upon the supply frequency. The error
is compensated by use of non inductive shunt in case of an Ammeter, when the frequency increases, the
increase in impedance of the winding cause a greater proportion of the total current to flow in the non
inductive shunt (whose impedance remains constant for all frequency) and lesser proportion of the total
current in flow in the winding and to an extent thus compensate the increase in torque (since T α. f).

In case of voltmeter, the impedance of the winding increases with the increase in frequency, hence
smaller current is drawn by the winding, which tends to compensate the increase in torque due to increase
in frequency.

12.4.2 Compensation for variation in temperature

Variation in temperature changes the resistance of the eddy current paths, therefore, may result in serious
errors. The error is compensated in case of an ammeter, employing a shunt of material having a high
temperature coefficient of resistance than the material of the disc. This shunt may be the same one as
used for frequency compensation. When the temperature increases, the resistance of the shunt increases,
hence the greater portion of the current flows through the coil and decreases in torque due to smaller
eddy current in the disc owing to increase in resistance at high temperature is compensated. The
combination of shunt and swapping resistance in series with the instrument is often employed to
compensate the temperature error in case of voltmeters. Since the frequency errors in induction type
instruments are so serious that cannot be compensated satisfactorily. Hence these instruments are used
for only constant frequency supplies or where the fluctuation in frequency is very small.
INDUCTION TYPE WATTMETER, WATT-HOUR METER, AND DYNAMOMETER TYPE
POWER FACTOR METER

13.1 Induction Type Wattmeter

These types of watt-meters operate on the same working principle on which the induction type ammeter
and voltmeter operates. These instruments can only be used on ac supply while dynamo-meter type watt
meters can be used on either ac or dc supply system. Induction type watt-meters are useful only when
the supply and frequency remains constant. Since both the coils i.e. current coil and pressure coils are
necessary in such instrument, it is not essential to use shaded pole principle. Because for producing a

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deflecting torque, two fluxes are essential with suitable phase angle and it would be available from these
two coils.

13.1.1 Construction

A watt-meter has two laminated electromagnet, one of which is excited by load current or definite
fraction of it, and is connected in series with the circuit, known as series magnet and the other is excited
by the current proportional to the applied voltage or fraction of it and is always connected across the
supply, known as shunt magnet. An aluminum disc is so mounted so that it cuts the fluxes produced by
both the magnets. As a result of which, two e.m.f�s are produced which induces two eddy currents in
the disc. C - Magnet is used to provide necessary damping torque to the pointer, to damp out the
oscillations. Deflecting torque is produced due to interaction of these eddy currents and the inducing
flux. Copper shading bands are provided either on central limb or on the outer limb of the shunt magnet,
and can be so adjusted as to make the resultant flux in the shunt magnet lag behind the applied voltage
by 90�. Both the watt-meters are provided with spiral springs A and B, for producing controlling torque
to counter balance the deflecting torque. In Fig. 13.2 the spiral spring and damping magnet is omitted
for simplicity. The scale of such type instruments is quite uniform and extends over an angle of 300�.
Currents up to 100 A can be handled by these watt-meters directly where as beyond this current
transformers are used. Two types of induction type watt meters are available. Line diagrams of both of
the types are detailed in Fig. 13.1 and 13.2.

Fig. 13.1 Induction type wattmeter

In the form of the instrument shown in Fig. 13.1, two pressure coils are connected in series in such a way
that both of them send flux through the central limb. The series magnet also carries two small current
coils connected in series and wound so that they magnetized their respective cores in the same direction.
Correct phase displacement between the fluxes produced by series and shunt magnet is obtained by the
adjustment of copper shading band on the central limb.

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 Fig. 13.2 Induction type wattmeter

In Fig. 13.2, there is only one pressure and one current coil. Two projecting poles of shunt magnet are
surrounded by a copper shading band whose position can be adjusted for correcting the phase of the flux
of this magnet with the applied voltage. The pressure coil circuit of induction type instrument is made
as inductive as possible so that the flux of the shunt magnet may lag nearly by 90 degree behind the
applied voltage.

13.1.2 Advantages

The advantages of induction watt meters are the same as those of induction ammeters long scale,
freedom from effects of stray field, and have effective damping torque.

13.1.3 Disadvantages

Following are the disadvantage of the induction type instruments:

a) Change in temperature causes variation in the resistance of the moving element, affects the eddy
currents therein, and so the operating torque. The error due to this is in part offset by a balancing
effect due to change in temperature of the windings.
b) Change in frequency from that of the calibration value causes variations in both the reactance of
the voltage coil circuit, which is highly inductive, and also in the amount of compensation from the
phase compensating circuit. Within the limits of frequency variation met within practice on the
mains, this last error in not important.

13.2 Induction Type Single Phase Watt Hour Meter

A watt hour meter is used to sum up the total energy consumed by a consumer during a period so that it
can be charged for the actual energy consumed. The working principle, theory and advantage /
disadvantages are almost similar to single phase watt meter. The construction of single phase watt hour
meter is also almost similar to single phase induction type watt meter as discussed above. The pointer

41
and spiral springs are replaced by wheel-train mechanism for summing up of total energy consumed
where as the damping magnet is replaced by braking magnet. The construction of this type of watt hour
meter is shown in Fig.

Fig. Induction type energy meter

The brake magnet and recording wheel-train being omitted for clear understanding of the diagram. The
description of registering mechanism and braking system is detailed below.

13.2.1 Registering or counting system

The registering or counting system essentially consists of gear train, driven either by worm or pinion
gear on the disc shaft, which turns pointers that indicate on dials the number of times the disc has turned.
The energy meter thus determines and adds together or integrates all the instantaneous power values so
that total energy used over a period is thus known. Therefore, this type of meter is also called
an integrating meter.

13.2.2 Braking system

Braking of the disk is provided by a small permanent magnet, located diametrically opposite to the
alternating current magnets. The disk moves between the magnets gaps. The movement of rotating disc
through the magnetic field crossing the air gap sets up eddy currents in the disc that reacts with the
magnetic field and exerts a braking torque. By changing the position of the brake magnet or diverting
some of the flux therefore, the speed of the rotating disc can be controlled. Creep error can be rectified
by drilling a small hole in the aluminum disc passing through the magnetic flux of braking magnet.

13.3 Errors and Adjustment in Induction Type Instruments

13.3.1 Phase and speed error

It is necessary that the energy meter should give correct reading on all power factors, which is only
possible when the field set up by shunt magnet flux lags behind the applied voltage by 90 degree.
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Ordinarily the flux set up by shunt magnet does not lag behind the applied voltage exactly by 90 degree
because of winding resistance and iron losses. The flux due to shunt magnet is made to lag behind applied
voltage by 90 degree with the help of copper shading band provided on the central limb. An error due to
incorrect adjustment of shading band will be evident when the meter is tested on a load of power factor
less than unity.

An error on the fast side under these conditions can be eliminated by bringing the shading band nearer
to the disc and vice versa. An error in the speed of the meter when tested on non inductive load can be
eliminated by adjustment of the position of the brake magnet. Movement of the brake magnet in the
direction of the spindle will reduce the braking torque and vice versa. Speed of disc is directly
proportional to the distance between the disc and brake magnet.

13.3.2 Friction compensation

The two shading bands embrace the flux contained in the two outer limbs of the shunt electromagnet,
and thus eddy current are induced in them which cause a phase displacement between the enclosed flux
and main gap flux. As a result, a small driving torque is exerted on the disc, this torque being adjusted,
by variation of the position of these bands, to compensate for frictional torque in the instrument.

In some energy meter, it is observed that the disc continue to rotate even when the load on the energy
meter is zero and potential coil is in excited condition. This defect is known as creeping and is prevented
by cutting two holes or slots in the disc on opposite sides of the spindle. The disc tends to remain
stationary when one of the holes comes under one of pole of the shunt magnet. In some cases, a small
piece of iron wire is attached to the edge of the disc. The force of attraction of the brake magnet upon
this wire is sufficient to prevent continuous rotation of the disc under no load condition.

13.3.3 Temperature and frequency errors

The error due to variation in temperature is very small. Since the various effects due to change in
temperature tends to neutralize each other on unity power factor if not on low power factor (lagging).
Since the meters are used normally on fixed frequency and hence these can be adjusted to have a
minimum error at declared supply frequency which is normally 50 cycles / second.

13.4 Single Phase Dynamo-meter Type Power Factor Meter

The power factor meter is used to indicate the instantaneous power factor of the consumer. It consist of
two fixed coils CC connected in series carrying the load current (or a definite fraction of it) and two
identical moving coils P1 & P2 wound with a fine copper wire, fixed at right angle to each other and
pivoted on the same spindle. The pressure coils P1 and P2 move together and carry a pointer, which
indicates the power factor of the circuit directly on the scale.

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 Fig. Dynamometer type power factor meter

The pressure coil P1 is connected across the supply through a non inductive resistance R and pressure
P2 is connected across the supply through a highly inductive choke coil of inductance L. The value of
non inductive resistance R and inductance L are so chosen that for the normal frequency, the current in
the two pressure coil P1 and P2 is same. Thus these coils P1 and P2 produce equally strong magnetic field
displaced by 900 in space as well as in the phase. For measurement of power factor on high voltage
system, the current and pressure coils of the instrument may be connected to the main circuit through
current and potential transformer respectively.

13.4.1 Theory

While measuring power factor of an installation, there may be three possibilities of installations power
factor, which are described here:

(a) Power Factor is Unity: When the circuit is switched on, the current in the potential coil P1 will
be in phase with current in coils CC, where as the current in pressure coil P2 will lag 900 behind the
voltage or behind the current in the circuit coli CC. Thus pressure coil P1 will experience a turning
moment so its plane will come in a position parallel to a plane of a current coil CC. The average
torque on coil P2 will be zero but being mechanically coupled to coil P1, it will follow the rotation
of coil P1. Hence the pointer will in the centre of the calibrated scale and it will show the power
factor as unity. The position of coil P1 is shown in Fig. and it will maintain the reading till the load
current is in phase with the voltage.
(b) When Power Factor is Zero (lagging): In this situation, the current flowing in the pressure coil
P2 will be in phase with load current flowing in the fixed current coil CC, both lagging behind the
applied circuit voltage by 900 and current in pressure coil P1 will lead the load current in current coil
CC by 900. Thus only pressure coil P2 will experience a turning moment so its plane will come in a
position parallel to the plane of current coils CC. At this instant, the pointer will indicate zero power
factor lagging.
(c) When Power Factor Zero (leading): When the current flowing in fixed coils CC leads the
applied voltage by 90 degree and, therefore, the field of pressure coils P1 by 90 degree and that of
coil P2 by 180 degree. Hence the polarity of field in current coils is the reverse of that considered
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 above. At this instant, the pointer will indicates the power factor as zero leading on the other half of
the scale.

For an intermediate power factor, the moving system takes up intermediate position and the pointer
makes an angle of (90 degree - F) with the axis of the fixed coils where F the phase angle between load
current is and applied voltage of the load circuit.
Errors in wattmeter and energy meter and their compensation and adjustment

Errors in Wattmeter Compensation method

To overcome this error, wattmeter’s are provided

with additional compensating winding which is
connected in series with pressure coil but
positioned in such a manner that it produces a
field in opposition to that produced by current in
current coil.

Error
due to connection method
A suitable value capacitor connected in parallel
Error due to pressure coil inductance
with pressure coil.
This error can be reduced by designing pressure
coil circuit such that inductive reactance of the
Error due to Pressure Coil Capacitance
circuit matches exactly with the capacitance
reactance of the circuit i.e. XL=XC.
This error can be reduced by proper design of
pressure coil and current coil system so that they
Error due to mutual inductance effect
always remain in a zero position of mutual
inductance.
To avoid this error, magnetic shield is placed over
Error due to stray magnetic fields
CC & PC.
These are minimized by avoiding solid metal
Error due to eddy currents
parts and using laminated core.
Using zero temperature coefficient materials for
Temperature error
coils and components, this can be minimized.
It is avoided by designing the moving system
Error due to vibration of moving system such that its natural freq is greater than 2 times
the freq of deflecting torque of the wattmeter.
The weight of moving system be reduced to
Error due to friction
minimum possible.

Phantom Loading
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Definition: Phantom loading is the phenomena in which the appliances consume electricity even
when they turn off. The disc of the energy meter rotates which increases the reading of the meter, but
the devices do not consume power. This type of loading is also known as the vampire or virtual
loading. The phantom loading mainly occurs in the “electronic” appliances.

The phantom loading is used for examining the current rating ability of the energy meter. The actual
loading arrangement will waste a lot of power. The phantom loading consumes very less power as
compared to real loading, and because of this reason, it is used for testing the meter.

In phantom loading, the pressure coil and the current coil are separately excited by the supply source.
The pressure coil is energised from the small supply voltage, and the current energises the current coil
at very small voltages.

The pressure and current coil circuit have low impedance (less obstruction of movement of the
electron) because of which highly rated current is passed through it. The total current supplied for the
phantom loading is the sum of the pressure coil current which is supplied at normal voltage and the
current of the current coil supply at low voltages.

Example of Phantom Loading

Consider the DC energy meter having rating voltage 220V and current 9 Ampere. The resistance of the
pressure coil and the current coil is 4400Ω and 0.1Ω respectively. The power consumption of the load
by direct and indirect phantom is explained below.

Direct Loading Arrangement

The circuit for direct loading is shown in the figure

below.

The power consumption of the pressure coil circuit is calculated as

Power = (220)2/ 4400 = 48400/4400 = 11watt

The power consumption of the current circuit is expressed as

Power = 220 Χ 9 = 1980watt

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The total power consumed by the pressure and current circuit

Power = 11watt + 1980watt = 1991watt

Phantom Loading Arrangement

The circuit of the phantom loading is shown in the figure below.

The power consumption of the pressure coil is given below.

P = (220)2/4400 = 11watt

The current coil of the phantom loading arrangement is separately excited by the battery of the 9V. The
power of the current coil is measured as

Power = 9 Χ 9 = 81watt

The total power consumed by the phantom loading is expressed as

Total Power = 11watt + 81watt = 92watt

The above example shows that in phantom loading the pressure and the current coil is separately
excited by the meter. Hence the power loss is less in phantom loading as compared to direct loading.

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