Unit 1

UNIT-1
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
CLASSIFICATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS:

An instrument is a device in which we can determine the magnitude or value of the
quantity to be measured. The measuring quantity can be voltage, current, power and energy etc.
Generally instruments are classified in to two categories.
1. Absolute (or primary) instruments.

2. Secondary instruments.
1. Absolute Instruments:
These instruments give the value of the electrical quantity in terms of absolute quantities
(or Some constants) of the instruments and their deflections. In this type of instruments no
calibration or comparison with other instruments is necessary. They are generally not used in
laboratories and are seldom used in practice by electricians.
Some of the examples of absolute instruments are:
EX: Tangent galvanometer.
2. Secondary Instruments:
They are direct reading instruments. The quantity to be measured by these instruments can be
determined from the deflection of the instruments. They are often calibrated by comparing
them with either some absolute instruments or with those which have already been calibrated.
Some of the very widely used secondary instruments are: ammeters, voltmeter, wattmeter,
energy meter , ampere-hour meters etc.
secondary instruments are again classified into three types, these are.
1. Indicating instruments
2. Recording instruments
3. Integrating instruments.
1. Indicating instruments:
Indicating instruments indicate the quantity to be measured at the time of
measurement by means of a pointer which moves on a scale.
Examples are ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter etc.
2. Recording instruments:
These instruments record continuously the variation of any electrical quantity with respect
to specified time. In principle, these are indicating instruments but so arranged that a
permanent continuous record of the indication is made on a chart or dial. The recording is
generally made by a pen on a graph paper which is rotated on a dice or drum at a uniform
speed. The amount of the quantity at any time (instant) may be read from the traced chart.
Any variation in the quantity with time is recorded by these instruments.
Examples are ECG and X-Y recorder etc.
B Sreenivas Reddy,Asst.Professor,Dept.of EEE,SVCE,Tirupati. Page 1

3. Integrating instruments:
These instruments record the consumption of the total quantity of electricity, energy etc.,
during a particular period of time. That is, these instruments measure total energy over a
specified period of time. No indication of the rate or variation or the amount at a particular
instant are available from them. Some widely used integrating instruments are: Ampere-hour
meter: kilowatt-hour (kWh) meter, etc.
Essential requirements of an instruments:
In case of measuring instruments, the effect of unknown quantity is converted into a mechanical force
which is transmitted to the pointer which moves over a calibrated scale. The moving system of such
instrument is mounted on a pivoted spindle. For satisfactory operation of any indicating instrument,
following system must be present in an instrument.
1) Deflecting system producing deflecting torque T d

2) Controlling system producing damping torque Tc
3) Damping system producing damping torque.
1. Deflecting torque/force:
In most of the indicating instruments the mechanical force proportional to the quantity to
be measured is generated. This force or torque deflects the pointer. The system which
produces such a deflecting torque is called deflecting system and the torque is denoted as
Td .The deflection torque can be provided by the following methods.
1. Magnetic effect:
When a current carrying conductor is placed in a uniform magnetic field, it produces a force it
causes to move it. This effect is mostly used in many instruments like permanent magnet
moving coil instrument, moving iron instrument etc;
2. Thermal Effect:
The current to be measured is passed through a small element (platinum iridium wire ) , the
property of the element is, it expanses when the temperature increase. Due to the current
flowing through the element, the temperature of the element increases, due to the elasticity
property the moving system of the instrument moves from thezero position.
3. Electrostatic Effects:
When two charged plates are kept with a small distance , there is a attraction or repulsion
force experience between the two plates, this effect is called Electrostatic Effect. This force is
used to move the pointer of the instrument.
4. Induction Effects:
This type of instrument works on the principle of induction motor. This instruments are used
to measure only A.C quantities. When a non-magnetic conducting disc is placed in a
magnetic field produced by electromagnets which are excited by alternating currents, an e.m.f
is induced in it.
5.Hall effect:
The Hall Effect is a phenomenon that occurs in certain materials, particularly semiconductors,
when they are placed in a uniform magnetic field and a current is passed through them. When
this happens, an electric field is generated perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the
current, which results in a voltage difference between two points on the material. This voltage
difference is known as the Hall voltage.

The Hall Effect can be used in a variety of applications, one of which is in flux meters. Flux-
meters are instruments that measure the strength of a magnetic field. They make use of the Hall
Effect by passing a current through a semiconducting material and then measuring the Hall
voltage generated. By knowing the material's Hall coefficient and the magnetic field strength, the
flux density can be calculated.
2. Controlling torque/force:
This torque must act in the opposite direction to the deflecting torque, and the
movement will take up an equilibrium or definite position when the deflecting and
controlling torque are equal in magnitude. The controlling torque is dependent on
the magnitude of deflection produced. The moving system is deflected from zero to
such a position that the controlling torque at that deflected position is equal to the
deflecting torque. The controlling torque increases in magnitude with the deflection
till it balances the deflecting torque. That is, for a steady deflection,
Controlling torque = Deflection or operating torque, Then we will get the steady
deflection.
The controlling torque developed in an instrument has two functions:
(a) It limits the movement of the moving system and ensures that the magnitude of
the deflections always remains the same for a given value of the quantity to be measured.
(b) It brings back the moving system to its zero position when deflection force is
zero.There are two methods to provide controlling torques.
1. Spring controlling torque.
2. Gravity controlling torque.

1.Spring Control:

2.Gravity Control:

The following methods are used to produce damping torque.
1) Air friction damping
2) Fluid friction damping
3) Eddy current damping

Moving-iron Instruments:
The moving iron type instruments are one of the types of measuring instruments used for
measuring voltage or current. These instruments use a movable piece of iron placed in the magnetic
field that deflects the pointer over the scale and hence named moving iron instrument.
There are two types of moving iron (MI) instruments. They are,
1) Attraction type moving iron instruments
2) Repulsion type moving iron instruments.
Attraction type moving iron instruments:

The working principle of attraction type moving iron instrument is based on magnetic attraction,
which attracts an iron piece when placed near a magnet field. Here, the magnet field will be produced
by an electromagnet.
Construction of Attraction Type Moving Iron Instrument :

It consists of a fixed coil that is flat with a narrow opening in it. A moving iron that is made of soft
iron is mounted on a spindle. The coils are wound with a number of turns that depend upon the range
of the instrument. The pointer is mounted on a spindle which consists of a graduated scale for showing
the deflection. The construction of attraction type moving iron is shown below.

The controlling torque is provided by the springs or if the instrument is vertically operated gravity
control can also be employed. This instrument uses air friction damping to damp out oscillations which
consist of a movable piston made of aluminium placed in an air chamber.
Since the operating magnetic field produced by the coil winding is not much strong, the eddy current
damping which uses permanent magnets can distort the main field. Thus eddy current damping cannot
be used and fluid friction damping is not much preferred. The moving iron is made of sheet metal for
obtaining a uniform scale.
Working of Attraction Type Moving Iron Instrument :

Whenever coil winding is connected across the supply to be measured, it setups a magnetic field. The
intensity of the magnetic field is higher inside the coil compared to the intensity of the outside, and
hence low reluctance exists inside the coil. As the moving iron tries to occupy the low reluctance
position, it is moved and gets attracted to the fixed coil. As the iron piece moves, the pointer also
moves to show the deflection. The instrument attains the equilibrium position when controlling torque
balances the deflecting torque.

Torque Equation of Moving Iron Instruments :
Let,
 Td = Deflection torque in N-m

 θ = Deflection in radians
 L = Inductance in Henry
 I = Initial current
 dI = Change in initial current
 dL = Change in inductance
 dθ = Change in deflection
The voltage drop across the ammeter is given by,
The energy consumed by the meter,
For a small increment in current (dI), the deflection is increased by dθ. We know that the energy stored
by the inductance of the meter = 1/2 LI2. Therefore, new energy storage due to increment in current,
= 1/2 (L + dL)(I + dI)2
The change in stored energy is,
Neglecting the second and third order differential terms, we get change in stored energy as,
= LIdI + 1/2 I2 dL ...(2)

We have work done = Td × dθ = Td. From the law of conservation of energy, we have,
Energy consumed = Work done + Change in stored energy
Substituting equations 1, 2, and 3 in 4, we get,

From the above, we can say deflecting torque produced is proportional to the square of the current. For
ac measurement, the readings obtained will be the RMS value of the current or voltage. Due to square
law response of the instrument, the scale of moving iron instruments is not uniform.
Advantages of Attraction Type MI Instruments :

 The instruments can be used for measuring both dc and ac quantities.
 Simple in construction.
 Since the winding coil is kept stationary, these instruments are robust and reliable.
 As attraction type instruments have lower inductance, the measurement can be done over a
wide range of frequencies.
 A shunt can be connected in parallel with the basic instrument in order to measure heavy
currents.
Disadvantages of Attraction Type MI Instruments :

 These are not suitable for economical production in manufacturing.
 The power consumption is higher for a low voltage range.
Accuracy in the readings cannot be obtained due to the non-uniform scale.
Applications of Attraction Type MI Instruments :

 Heavy current moving iron instruments.
 Moving iron voltmeters.
 Moving iron power factor meters.
 Moving iron synchroscope.
Repulsion type moving iron instruments:
Similar to attraction force there will be repulsion force when same magnetic poles are placed near
each other. Based upon this repulsion force between two like poles the repulsion type moving iron
instruments were developed.

Repulsion type moving iron instruments are used both for ac and dc measurements. In these
instruments, when current flows through the coil, the two vanes i.e., fixed vane and movable vane are
magnetized and same polarities are induced in it which results in a force of repulsion between them.
Construction of Repulsion Type Moving Iron Instrument :

Basically, a repulsion type instrument consists of a fixed field coil and two vanes present inside
the coil, out of which one vane is fixed and the other vane is movable. The fixed vane is attached to the
coil whereas the movable vane is mounted on the spindle of the instrument. The spindle carries the
pointer which moves on a graduated scale. Depending on the design of construction, there are two
types of repulsion type MI instruments. They are,
 Radial vane type, and
 Co-axial or concentric vane type.

Radial Vane Repulsion Type Instrument :
If the vanes are radial, then it is called radial vane repulsion type instrument as shown below.
It consists of two iron strips (vanes) are placed radially, in which one is fixed and the other is movable.
In this type of instrument, the deflection torque is directly proportional to the actual current in the coil,
thus making the scale uniform and readings can be obtained directly. These are the most sensitive type
of instruments.
Co-axial Vane Repulsion Type Instrument :

In co-axial vane type instruments, the vanes are the sections of coaxial cylinders as shown above.
In this, the two vanes are co-axially placed inside the coil. In which one vane is fixed to the coil frame
that remains stationary, while the other is movable which rotates at the central axis inside the
stationary vane. But the deflecting torque on the pointer is proportional to the square of the actual
current in the coil. Hence the scale cannot be uniform due to concentric vanes. Compared to radial type
these instruments are less sensitive.
Working of Repulsion Type Moving Iron Instrument :

Initially, the current does not pass through the coil. Hence, the two vanes will touch each other and
the pointer does not deflect (i.e., it will be at zero position).
Whenever current flows through the coil, a magnetic field is set up in it and two vanes are magnetized
with the same polarities i.e., north poles are produced at one end in both the vanes and south poles are
produced on their other ends. Due to this, a repulsive force exists between two vanes and the movable
vane tries to move away from the fixed vane as shown below.

Hence, the movable vane moves because of the repulsive force, and the pointer which is mounted on a
spindle show deflection. The pointer stops deflecting when the controlling torque is equal to the
deflecting torque. The amount of repulsion force depends upon the strength of the magnetization field
produced by the coil. The magnetic field produced will depend upon the current supplied. In these
instruments, controlling torque is provided by the spiral springs and damping torque is provided by air
friction.
Advantages of Repulsion Type Moving Iron Instruments :

 The instruments can measure both ac and dc currents or voltages.
 In concentric or coaxial type, the deflection up to 250° can be produced.
 As the coil in the repulsion time instrument occupies more volume, it can allow overloaded
currents for a longer duration of time, and hence it provides better cooling which eliminates the
problem of overheating.
 These are suitable for economical production in manufacturing.
 These are the most widely used instruments.
 The scale of these instruments is uniform (for radial vane type).
 The measuring range of the instrument can be extended.
 Due to stationary coil, the torque to weight ratio will be high thereby decreasing the frictional
loss.
Disadvantages of Repulsion Type Moving Iron Instruments :
 Linearization of the scale is affected in coaxial vane type because of the shape of concentric
vanes.
 Errors are caused because of hysteresis loss and also due to stray magnetic fields.
 Draws more power.

Errors in Moving Iron Instruments :
The errors in moving iron instruments are,
 Hysteresis error
 Temperature error
 Errors due to stray magnetic fields
 Errors due to change in frequency
Hysteresis Error :
The main source of this error is the tendency of the iron parts in the instrument to store magnetism for
short periods. Due to this error, for decaying values of currents, the flux appears to be more than its
corresponding value. As the deflecting torque is directly proportional to the flux, the meter reads high.
Methods adopted to reduce this error are,

 Reducing the size of the iron part in the instrument.
 Reducing the value of operating flux density.
 Replacing the active iron part with nickel-iron alloy as it has a narrow hysteresis loop. With this
method, the hysteresis error can be reduced to a large extent.
Temperature Error :
The main source of this error is the temperature coefficient of the springs (for spring controlled
instruments only), moving coil, and series resistance. Due to an increase in temperature, the overall
resistance of the meter increases and so the current through the meter gets reduced. Hence. the meter
reads low. In order to reduce this error, the series resistance being employed is made with the material
having a negligible temperature coefficient (like manganin, constantan, etc). The value of series
resistance should be comparatively much higher than that of moving coil and springs.
Errors due to Stray Magnetic Fields :

The main source of this error is the external magnetic fields which are stronger than the operating
field. If the stray magnetic field aids the operating field, then the meter reads high and when it opposes, the
meter reads low.
To reduce this error, magnetic shielding is provided by an iron case covering the instruments working
parts.
Errors due to Change in Frequency :

The main sources of this error are,
 Change in Reactance of the Meter Coil with Frequency - It is due to the dependence of the inductive
reactance on the frequency of the supply i.e., the inductive reactance of the coil increases with an
increase in frequency ( XL = 2πfL). Hence, overall impedance also increases and so the current
through the meter reduces. Hence, the deflection will be less. In order to neutralize this error in the
case of MI voltmeters, a properly designed capacitor is connected across the series resistor (i.e.,
multiplier).
 Variations in the Eddy Currents with Frequency - The main source of this error is inducing eddy
currents in the iron parts of instruments. The flux produced due to the flow of eddy currents opposes
the main field (operating flux), according to Lenz's law. Hence, the meter reads low. The amount of
reduction in flux varies with frequency. At lower frequencies, the reduction in flux is directly
proportional to the square of the frequency, while at higher frequencies, it is almost constant. The only
remedy to minimize this error is to reduce the iron parts in the vicinity of operating flux.

Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) Instruments
PMMC stands for Permanent Magnet Moving Coil. It is the most accurate measuring instrument
used for measuring dc quantities. Its working principle is similar to a motor i.e. when a movable
coil is placed in the magnetic field it experiences a torque and moves. Here, permanent magnets are
used to produce the magnetic field, and hence the instrument called Permanent Magnet Moving
Coil instrument.
Construction of a PMMC Instrument :
The main components used in PMMC instruments are,
 Moving coil
 Magnet system
 Control system
 Damping system
 Pointer and scale
Moving Coil :
Moving coil consists of a number of turns which are made up of silk-covered copper wire. Whenever
current flows through the moving coil and is kept in the magnetic field, a deflecting torque is produced and
the coil moves due to which the pointer shows deflection. The coil is wound on a rectangular aluminum
former and the length to breadth ratio of the aluminum former is maintained between 1.3 to 1.5 in order to
have high torque and high weight efficiency. The former is pivoted on jewel bearings so that the coil sides
lie in the air gap between the poles of the permanent magnet. Generally, coils in the voltmeter are wound
on metallic frames whereas coils in the ammeter are wound on non-magnetic formers.
Magnet System :
The magnet system consists of permanent magnets. The function of the magnet system is to produce a
magnetic field. Permanent magnets are available in different shapes and sizes. The most commonly used is
the U-shaped magnet. In recent PMMC instruments, magnets are made up of materials like Alcomax and
Alnico that have a high ability to withstand external magnetic fields without losing their magnetism.
Because the magnets are obtained in smaller lengths with high flux densities.
For rectangular magnets, the angular span of scale is 90° only whereas for concentric magnets, it is possible
to obtain up to 250° and more. Nowadays, the magnets are designed in such a way that the magnets
themselves act as a path for the magnetic field i.e., core.
Control System :
The function of the control system is to produce the necessary and sufficient controlling torque. The control
torque in PMMC instrument is provided by two phosphor bronze hairsprings. These springs also allow the
current to flow in and out of the coil. The control torque produced is equal in magnitude but opposite to
that of deflection torque, for the pointer to reach the steady-state position. Gravity control and ribbon
suspension are also used for producing controlling torque.
Damping System :
The function of the damping system is to provide the damping torque for allowing the pointer to reach the
rest position within a short duration of time. The damping produced in the PMMC instrument is
electromagnetic damping which is obtained by the movement of the aluminum former in the magnetic field
on which the core is mounted. Eddy current damping system and bearing friction also provide the damping
torque.

Pointer and Scale :
Whenever the coil moves in the magnetic field, the pointer shows deflection and the deflection of the
pointer is directly proportional to the coil current. The pointer is a thin device that is lightweight in
construction. It is made up of aluminum and is flattened at one end in order to make it as an edge of a knife.
The pointer is mounted on a spindle that moves a graduated scale and it is balanced by the balancing
weight which is connected to it. A mirror is placed below the scale in order to avoid parallax error.
Working Principle of PMMC Instrument :

Generally, the working of PMMC instrument is similar to a motor i.e., how the rotor of the motor
experiences a torque in a stator magnetic field. Here the rotor refers to moving coil and the stator field
refers to the field produced by permanent magnets. The schematic of PMMC is shown in the following
figure.
When the current to be measured is applied to the moving coil terminals placed in the magnetic field. The
coil experience a torque and starts moving. This movement of the coil also moves the pointer attached to it
i.e., causing deflection of pointer over the scale.

The torque produced is called deflecting torque and it is proportional to flux density and dimensions of the
coil. The deflection of the pointer or the deflecting torque produced is in such a way that it is equal to the
amount of current flowing through the coil.
Therefore, the value indicated by the pointer over the scale will be equal to the magnitude of the current
being measured. It is the most accurate instrument for dc measurements. The accuracy of this instrument is
in order of 2-5% of full-scale deflection. Since the deflection of the instrument is directly proportional to
the current, the scale can be linear and uniform.
Torque Equation for PMMC Instrument :

Let,
 N = Number of turns of the coil
 l = Vertical length of the coil (m)
 d = Horizontal length of the coil (m)
 I = Current flowing through the meter
 β = Flux density between the poles (wb/m3)
 α = Angle made by the conductor with the magnetic field
In galvanometer the field present is radial. Therefore, α = 90°. From Lorentz's force equation, we have, the
force exerted on each coil side is,
F = NBIl sinα
F = NBIl sin90°
F = NBIl ...(1)
Therefore, deflecting torque is given by,
Td = F × Distance = F × d ...(2)
Substituting equation 1 in 2, we get,
Td = NBIl × d
But the area of the coil is given by,
a=l×d
Td = NBIa
∴ Td = GI (G = galvanometer constant = NBa)
The controlling torque is obtained by the spring control action.
∴ Tc = Kθ
Assuming θ as deflection and K as spring constant. At steady-state deflection, we know that Tc = Td i.e.,
Kθ = GI.
∴ Deflection, θ = GI/K

Advantages of PMMC Instrument :
 The use of phosphor bronze hairsprings to control the deflecting torque reduces the bearing friction.
 The pointer and scale arrangement is such that it reduces the parallax error.
 The power consumed by the PMMC instruments is very less.
 They are more accurate because of high torque to weight ratio.
 The scale is linear and uniform.
 Additional measuring capacity can be obtained by connecting shunts and multipliers.
 Errors due to the stray magnetic field are reduced.
 It is also Free from hysteresis loss.
Disadvantages of PMMC Instrument :
 They can be used only for dc measurements.
 Its construction cost is quite high.
 Errors are introduced due to aging and heat treatments.
 Errors are also introduced due to the aging of springs.
Applications of PMMC Instrument
 It is used in the measurement of direct voltages and currents
 Used to detect small currents in DC galvanometers.
 It is used to measure the change in magnetic flux linkage in Ballistic galvanometers
 It is used as an Ammeter
 It is used as a Voltmeter
 It is used as an Ohm meter
 It is used as a Galvanometer.
 At low frequencies, the PMMC instrument along with the rectifier is used to measure AC by converting it
into DC (<1mA).
Errors in PMMC Instrument :

The most common errors in moving coil instruments are due to,
 Ageing of permanent magnets,
 Ageing of springs, and
 Temperature variations.
Errors due to Ageing of Permanent Magnets :
Due to the use of permanent magnets, the ageing of magnets causes its weakening, thereby resulting in
a reduced magnetic field. The decrease in the magnetic field reduces the deflection torque that has to be
produced. Therefore, the pointer deflection decreases and the reading obtained will be lesser than the actual
value.
Errors due to Ageing of Springs :
Similar to the ageing of magnets, the ageing of springs causes an error in the readings obtained. Due
to aging, the spring losses its ability to tolerate considerable bending or twisting. Due to which the control
torque produced on the pointer decreases and the pointer deflects more than actual.
Here we can see that the effects due to the ageing of magnets and springs are opposite to each other.
Because the error introduced due to magnets ageing causes the reading obtained to be lesser than the actual
value, whereas ageing of springs causes the reading obtained to be more than the actual value.
Errors due to Temperature Variations :

The variations in surrounding temperature can also introduce errors in moving coil instruments.
There are two effects due to temperature variation, it affects the stiffness of the spring and flux density in
the air gap. But these effects are in such a way that they will cancel each other resulting in not much error
in the readings obtained. Due to variations in temperature, the resistance of the conductor used for moving
coil varies, thereby changing the amount of current flowing through the coil that effects the deflection of
pointer. For example, the temperature coefficient of copper is 0.004/°C i.e., the deflection of the instrument
is reduced by 0.04% per °C rise in temperature.
Compensation of the Errors in PMMC Instruments :

 The permanent magnets are treated by heat and vibrations resulting in loss of some magnetic
properties but the remaining magnetic properties are strongly held. So, the ageing effect will not
appear in the future.
 The effects due to ageing of springs can be reduced by careful use of materials and extending the life
span during manufacturing.
 By using a series resistance made of materials having a negligible coefficient of temperature (like
manganin) with the moving coil voltmeter reduces the effects due to temperature changes. The
resistance of the series resistor or swamping resistor should be relatively higher than that of the
moving coil.
Electrodynamometer Type Instruments:

It is a transfer type instrument that is calibrated with dc but can be used for ac measurements without any
changes. The electrodynamic instruments are often used in ac voltmeters and ammeters but they can be
used as wattmeters with slight changes. Let us see the construction and working principle of the
electrodynamometer type wattmeter.
Construction of Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter :

The constructional details of an electro-dynamometer type wattmeter are shown in the below figure.

Fixed Coils :
It is basically an air-cored coil with a large area of cross-section and fewer turns. The fixed coils are
divided into two sections and a moving coil is placed between them. These two coils are connected in
series with line and hence carry the full line current. The main function of the fixed coil is to produce the
required flux. The field coils are laminated and varnished as they carry heavy current and they are also
known as current coils.
Moving Coil :
The moving coil is placed between the two fixed coils and made to rotate with the help of a spindle. A
pointer is attached to the spindle that moves with the moving coil over the scale. The coil is wounded on a
metallic former and connected across the line. It is also known as the voltage coil or pressure coil. The
moving coil is made with a small cross-sectional area and more turns so as to limit the current through it.
The resistance of the voltage coil can be increased by connecting a resistance in series with it.
Springs :
Since the moving coil is not a stationary element, it cannot be connected directly to the supply. The
supply to the moving coil is given through springs. These springs also provide the necessary controlling
torque to control the deflection of the pointer.
Dampers :
This type of instrument is provided with air friction damping to damp out oscillations by providing
necessary damping torque. The moving coils carry a pair of aluminum vanes, which move in sector
shaped chamber at the bottom of the instrument.
Shielding :

The field produced by this instrument is very weak and hence may get affected easily by the stray
magnetic field. Hence, in order to overcome this drawback shielding is done in the form of casing of high
permeability.
Working of Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter :

The fixed coil connected in series acts as a current coil and the moving coil connected across the supply
terminals acts as a voltage coil. The fixed coil is proportional to the load current and the moving coil is
proportional to the voltage.
When the current passes through these coils, the fixed coil, as well as the moving coil, creates a magnetic
field due to which, the deflecting torque is developed, which is proportional to power. Thus, the power
can be measured by using the electrodynamic type wattmeter.
Expression for Torque :

Let,
 ip = Instantaneous current in the fixed coil

 ic = Instantaneous current in moving coil
 M = Mutual inductance between fixed and working coil
 T = Time period
 TI = Instantaneous torque
 TD = Deflecting torque
The deflecting torque is given by,
But, the instantaneous torque is given by,
Substituting equation 2 in 1, we get,
Assume, the two currents i1 and i2 to be sinusoidal with a phase difference of Φ we get,
i1 = Im1 sinωt
i2 = Im2 sin(ωt - Φ)
Substituting, i1 and i2 values in equation 3, we get,

On solving equation 4, we get,
In dc operation of a dynamometer type wattmeter, the deflection produced in the torque is given by,
Where,
 I1, I2 = RMS values of currents in fixed and moving coils respectively
cos Φ = Power factor
Hence, the deflection is proportional to the product of RMS values of the currents in both coils, power
factor, and rate of change of mutual inductance.
Therefore, for a dynamometer-type wattmeter, the scale is calibrated with the square root of the current
that is squared, which is nothing but the RMS value of the ac quantity. Hence, in this way, both ac and dc
can be measured using dynamometer type wattmeter and indicates power whether it is connected in ac or
dc circuit.
Errors in Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter :

There are different types of errors introduced in the dynamometer type wattmeter while measuring power.
They are,
 Errors due to mutual inductance.

 Errors due to connections.
 Eddy current errors.
 Errors due to stray magnetic fields.
 Errors due to vibration of the moving system.
 Temperature error.
 Errors caused due to pressure coil inductance.
 Errors caused due to pressure coil capacitance.

Advantages of Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter :
 A high degree of accuracy in the readings can be obtained.
 The scale of the instrument is uniform.
 Can be used in both ac and dc circuits.
 Due to the good accuracy of the instrument, it can be used for calibration.
Disadvantages of Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter :

(i) They have a low torque/weight ratio and hence have a low sensitivity.
(ii) Low torque/weight ratio gives increased frictional losses.
(iii) They are more expensive than either the PMMC or the moving iron type instruments.
(iv) These instruments are sensitive to overloads and mechanical impacts. Therefore, they must be handled
with great care.
(v) The operating current of these instruments is large owing to the fact that they have weak magnetic
field. The flux density is about 0.006 Wb/m as against 0.1 to 0.5 Wb/m in PMCC instruments
(vi) They have a non-uniform scale
Extension of Instrument ranges:

Moving coil instruments , which are used as ammeters and voltmeters are designed to carry
max.current of 50mA and withstand a voltage of 50mV. Hence, to measure larger currents and
voltages, the ranges of these meters have to be extended. The following methods are employed to
increase the ranges of ammeters and voltmeters
By using shunts, the range of dc ammeters is extended
By using multipliers, the range of dc voltmeter is extended
By using current transformers the range of ac ammeter is extended By using
potential transformer the range of ac voltmeter
By using shunts the range of dc ammeters is extended as follows:
When heavy currents are to be measured , the major part of current if bypassed through a low
resistance called shunt. It is shown in the below fig
The shunt resistance can be calculated as Let

Rm = internal resistance of coilRsh = shunt
resistance
Im = full scale deflection current Ish = shunt
current
I = Total current Now, I = Ish + Im Ish Rsh = ImRm Rsh = ImRm/Ish

Rsh = Rm / (I/Im - 1)
Rsh = Rm / m-1 where m = I/Im
And m is called multiplying power of shunt and is defined as the ratio of totalcurrent to
the current through the coil
Multirange ammeters
The range of basic dc ammeter can be extended by using no. of shunts and a selector switch,
such a meter is called multirange ammeter and is shown in the fig
A multirange ammeter can be constructed simple by employing several values of shunt resistances,
with a rotary switch to select the desired range. Fig. shows the circuit arrangement.
Range extension of voltmeter by using Multiplier:
The resistance is required to be connected in series with basic meter to use it as a voltmeter. This
series resistance is called a multiplier. The main function of the multiplier is to limit the current
through the basic meter, so that meter current does not exceed full scale deflection value.
The multiplier resistance can be calculated as Let Rm is
the internal resistance of the coil. Rs = series multiplier
resistance
Im = full scale deflection current
V = full range voltage to be measured V = ImRm + ImRs
ImRs = V –ImRm / ImRs = V/Im - Rm
The multiplying factor for multiplier is the ratio of full range voltage to be measured
and the drop across the basic meter.
.

DIGITAL VOLTMETERS:
Digital voltmeter is an electrical measuring instrument used to display the potential
difference between two points in the form of digits. The digital voltmeter (DVM) displays
measurements of dc or ac voltages as discrete numerals instead of a pointer deflection on a
continuous scale as in analog devices. Numerical readout is advantageous in many
applications because it reduces human reading and interpolation errors, eliminates parallax
error, increases reading speed, and often provides outputs in digital form suitable for further
processing or recording.
The DVM is a versatile and accurate instrument that can be used in many laboratory
measurement applications. Since the development and perfection DVM have
been drastically reduced so that DVMs can actively compete with conventional analog
instruments, both in portability and price. The DVM’s outstanding qualities
can best be illustrated by quoting some typical operating and performance characteristics.
Digital voltmeters can be classified according to the following broad categories:
(a) Ramp-type DVM
(b) Integrating DVM
(c) Continuous-balance DVM
(d) Successive-approximation DVM
RAMP-TYPE DVM:
The operating principle of the ramp-type DVM is based on the measurement of the time
it takes for a linear ramp voltage to rise from 0 V to the level of the input voltage, or to decrease
from the level of the input voltage to zero. This time interval is measured with an electronic time-
interval counter, and the count is displayed as a number of digits on electronic indicating tubes.
Fig: Block diagram of Ramp type DVM

The block diagram shown above is ramp type digital voltmeter(DVM).It consists of
a Ramp generator, it generating a waveform which is representing a ramp. The heart of the
circuit is the ramp generator. Therefore it is called ramp type digital voltmeter(DVM).
The input which should be measured is given at input voltage. This input is fed to
ranging and attenuator circuit which will amplify the signal if it is small or attenuates the
signal if it is large. This is given to an input comparator which will compare two signals
and generates the output. One input to the input comparator is from the input voltage and
another input is from the ramp. This input voltage and ramp signal are compared and
output is given. If the ramp signal is more than input voltage there will be no output but if
the input voltage is greater than the ramp signal then a is generated which will open the
gate. Now when the gate gets opened, clock oscillator will send clock pulses which are
counted by the counter and displayed on the screen.
The ground comparator will compare the ramp signal and ground and output is given.
This output will stop the flow of purchase from clock oscillator by closing the gate. The
sample rate multivibrator is used to reset the ramp generator. The operating principle
of ramp type digital voltmeter is to measure the time that a linear ramp voltage takes to
change from the level of the input voltage to zero voltage (or vice versa). This time interval
is measured with an electronic time interval counter and the count is displayed as a number
of digits on electronic indicating tubes of the output readout of the voltmeter.
The conversion of a voltage value of a time interval is shown in the below
timing diagram. At the start of measurement, a ramp voltage is initiated. A negative going
ramp is shown in the below figure but a positive going ramp may also be used. The
ramp voltage value is continuously compared with the voltage being measured (unknown
voltage). At the instant, the value of ramp voltage is equal to that of unknown voltage a
coincidence circuit, called an input comparator, generates a pulse which opens a gate (see
above block diagram).

The ramp voltage continues to decrease till it reaches ground level (zero
voltage). At this instant, another comparator called ground comparator generates a pulse
and closes the gate. The time elapsed between the opening and closing of the gate is t as
indicated in the below timing diagram of ramp type digital voltmeter. During this time
interval pulses from a clock pulse generator pass through the gate and are counted and
displayed.
Successive Approximation Type DVM:

The Successive Approximation Type DVM principle can be easily understood using a
simple example; the determination of the weight of an object. By using a balance and placing
the object on one side and an approximate weight on the other side, the weight of the object is
determined.
If the weight placed is more than the unknown weight, the weight is removed and
another weight of smaller value is placed and again the measurement is performed. Now if
it is found that the weight placed is less than that of the object, another weight of smaller
value is added to the weight already present, and the measurement is performed. If it is
found to be greater than the unknown weight the added weight is removed and another
weight of smaller value is added. In this manner by adding and removing the appropriate
weight, the weight of the unknown object is determined.

The Successive Approximation Type DVM works on the same principle. Its basic block
diagram is shown in Fig. 5.10. When the start pulse signal activates the control circuit, the
successive approximation register (SAR) is cleared. The output of the SAR is 00000000.
Vout of the D/A converter is 0. Now, if Vin > Vout the comparator output is positive. During
the first clock pulse, the control circuit sets the D 7 to 1, and Vout jumps to the half reference
voltage. The SAR output is 10000000. If V out is greater than Vin, the comparator output is
negative and the control circuit resets D7. However, if Vin is greater than Vout,
the comparator output is positive and the control circuits keep D 7 set. Similarly the rest of
the bits beginning from D7 to D0 are set and tested. Therefore, the measurement is
completed in 8 clock pulses.
At the beginning of the measurement cycle, a start pulse is applied to the start-stop
multivibrator. This sets a 1 in the MSB of the control register and a 0 in all bits (assuming
an 8-bit control) its reading would be 10000000. This initial setting of the register causes
the output of the D/A converter to be half the reference voltage, i.e. 1/2 V. This converter
output is compared to the unknown input by the comparator. If the input voltage is greater
than the converter reference voltage, the comparator output produces an output that causes
the control register to retain the 1 setting in its MSB and the converter continues to supply
its reference output voltage of 1/2 Vref..
The ring counter then advances one count, shifting a 1 in the second MSB of the control
register and its reading becomes 11000000. This causes the D/A converter to increase its
reference output by 1 increment to 1/4 V, i.e. 1/2 V + 1/4 V, and again it is compared with
the unknown input. If in this case the total reference voltage exceeds the unknown voltage,
the comparator produces an output that causes the control register to reset its second MSB
to 0. The converter output then returns to its previous value of 1/2 V and awaits another
input from the SAR. When the ring counter advances by 1, the third MSB is set to 1 and
the converter output rises by the next increment of 1/2 V + 1/8 V. The measurement cycle
thus proceeds through a series of Successive Approximation Type DVM. Finally, when the
ring counter reaches its final count, the measurement cycle stops and the digital output of
the control register represents the final approximation of the unknown input voltage.
Integrating type Digital voltmeter :

Integrating digital voltmeter measures the true average value of the input voltage over a
fixed measuring period. This voltmeter employs an integration technique which uses
a voltage to frequency conversion. The voltage to frequency (V/F) converter functions as a
feedback control system which governs the rate of pulse generation in proportion to the
magnitude of input voltage. Actually, when we employ the voltage to frequency
conversion techniques, a train of pulses, whose frequency depends upon the voltage being
measured, is generated. Then the number of pulses appearing in a definite interval of time

is counted. Since the frequency of these pulses is a function of unknown voltage, the
number of pulses counted in that period of time is an indication of the input (unknown)
voltage.
The heart of this technique is the operational amplifier acting as an Integrator.
Output voltage of integrator Eo = – Ei (1/RC) t
Thus if a constant input voltage Ei is applied, an output voltage Eo is produced which

rises at a uniform rate and has a polarity opposite to that input voltage. In other words, it is
clear from the above relationship, that for a constant input voltage the integrator produces a
ramp output voltage of opposite polarity.
Let us examine the below figure. Here the graphs are showing the relationship
between input voltages of three different values and their respective output voltages are
shown. It is clear that the polarity of the output voltage is opposite to that of the input voltage.
Not only that, the greater the input voltage the sharper is the rate of rise or slope of the
output voltage.

Working and block diagram of Integrating type DVM:
The basic block diagram of a typical integrating type digital voltmeter(DVM) is

shown in the above figure. Here is the working principle of Integrating type digital
voltmeter(DVM). The unknown voltage is applied to the input of the integrator, an output
voltage(Eo) starts to rise. The slope of the output voltage (Eo) is determined by the value
of input voltage (Ei). This voltage is fed a level detector and when Eo reaches a certain
reference level, the detector sends a pulse to the pulse generator gate.
The level detector is a device similar to a voltage comparator. The output voltage from
integrator (Eo) is compared with the fixed voltage of an internal reference source, and,
when Eo reaches that level, the detector produces an output pulse. It is evident that greater the
value of input voltage Ei the sharper will be the slope of output voltage Eo, and quicker the
output voltage Eo will reach its reference level.
The output pulse of the level detector opens the pulse generation gate, permitting
pulses from a fixed frequency clock oscillator to pass through the pulse generator. This
generator is a device such as a Schmitt trigger, that produces an output pulse of fixed
amplitude and width for every pulse it receives.
This output pulse, whose polarity is opposite to that of Ei and has a greater amplitude,
is feedback to the input of the integrator. Hence, the net input to the integrator is now of a
reversed polarity (opposite to that of Ei as is clear from the below figure). As a result of this
reversed input, the output Eo drops back to its original level. Since Eo is now below the
reference level of the level detector, there is no output from the detector to the pulse

generator gate and the gate gets closed. Thus no more pulses from the clock oscillator can
pass through to trigger the pulse generator.
When the output voltage pulse from the pulse generator has passed, Ei is restored to its
original value and Eo starts its rise again. When it reaches the level of reference voltage
again, the pulse generator gate is opened. The pulse generator is triggered by a pulse from the
clock generator and the entire cycle is repeated again. Thus, the waveform of Eo is a
sawtooth wave whose rise time is dependent upon the value of input voltage E, and the fall
time is determined by the width of the output pulse from the pulse generator.
Thus the frequency of the sawtooth wave (Eo) is a function of the value of Ei, the
voltage being measured. Since one pulse from the pulse generator is produced for each cycle
of the sawtooth wave, the number of pulses produced in a given time interval and hence the
frequency of the sawtooth wave is an indication of the value of voltage being measured.
The frequency of sawtooth wave may be measured by counting the number of pulses
in a given interval of time. Pulses from the clock oscillator are applied to a time base selector.
The first pulse passes through the start-stop gate, producing an output which is applied to the
main gate, thus opening the gate. As a result of this, the same output pulses from the pulse
generator (that are applied to integrator) also pass through the main gate.
The next pulse from the time base closes the start-stop gate and also the main gate.
Thus no more pulse generator pulses can pass through. Hence the counters and their
associated readout indicate the number of pulses that have passed during a known interval of
time. This count is an indication of the voltage being measured. In order to make the counter
read directly in terms of voltage, the amplitude and width of pulse generator pulses can be
suitably adjusted.

Digital frequency meter:
Principle of Operation of Digital Frequency Meter – The signal waveform is converted
to trigger pulses and applied continuously to an AND gate, as shown in Figure. A pulse of
1 s is applied to the other terminal, and the number of pulses counted during this period
indicates the frequency. The signal whose frequency is to be measured is converted into a
train of pulses, one pulse for each cycle of the signal. The number of pulses occurring in a
definite interval of time is then counted by an electronic counter. Since each pulse
represents the cycle of the unknown signal, the number of counts is a direct indication of
the frequency of the signal (unknown). Since electronic counters have a high speed of
operation, high frequency signals can be measured.
Basic Circuit of a Digital Frequency Meter:

The block diagram of a basic circuit of a digital frequency meter is shown in Figure.
The signal may be amplified before being applied to the Schmitt trigger. The Schmitt trigger
converts the input signal into a square wave with fast rise and fall times, which is then
differentiated and clipped. As a result, the output from the Schmitt trigger is a train of pulses,
one pulse for each cycle of the signal.
The output pulses from the Schmitt trigger are fed to a START/STOP gate. When this
gate is enabled, the input pulses pass through this gate and are fed directly to the electronic
counter, which counts the number of pulses.
When this gate is disabled, the counter stops counting the incoming pulses. The
counter displays the number of pulses that have passed through it in the time interval between
start and stop. If this interval is known, the unknown frequency can be measured.
Basic Circuit for Frequency Measurement:
The basic circuit for frequency measurement is as shown in Figure. The output of the
unknown frequency is applied to a Schmitt trigger, producing positive pulses at the output.
These pulses are called the counter signals and are present at point A of the main gate.
Positive pulses from the time base selector are present at point B of the START gate and at
point B of the STOP gate.

Initially the Flip-Flop (F/F-1) is at its logic 1 state. The resulting voltage from output Y is
applied to point A of the STOP gate and enables this gate. The logic 0 stage at the output Y̅
of the F/F-1 is applied to the input A of the START gate and disables the gate.
As the STOP gate is enabled, the positive pulses from the time base pass through the STOP
gate to the Set (S) input of the F/F-2 thereby setting F/F-2 to the 1 state and keeping it there.
The resulting 0 output level from Y̅ of F/F-2 is applied to terminal B of the main gate. Hence
no pulses from the unknown frequency source can pass through the main gate.
In order to start the operation, a positive pulse is applied to (read input) reset input of
F/F-1, thereby causing its state to change. Hence Y̅ = 1, Y = 0, and as a result the STOP gate
is disabled and the START gate enabled. This same read pulse is simultaneously applied to
the reset input of all decade counters, so that they are reset to 0 and the counting can start.
When the next pulse from the time base arrives, it is able to pass through the START gate to
reset F/F-2, therefore, the F/F-2 output changes state from 0 to 1, hence Y̅ changes from 0 to
1. This resulting positive voltage from Y̅ called the gating signal, is applied to input B of the
main gate thereby enabling the gate.
Now the pulses from the unknown frequency source pass through the main gate to the
counter and the counter starts counting. This same pulse from the START gate is applied to
the set input of F/F-1, changing its state from 0 to 1. This disables the START gate and

enables the STOP gate. However, till the main gate is enabled, pulses from the
unknown frequency continue to pass through the main gate to the counter.
The next pulse from the time base selector passes through the enabled STOP gate to the set
input terminal of F/F-2, changing its output back to 1 and Y̅ = 0. Therefore the main gate is
disabled, disconnecting the unknown frequency signal from the counter. The counter counts
the number of pulses occurring between two successive pulses from the time base selector. If
the time interval between this two successive pulses from the time base selector is 1 second,
then the number of pulses counted within this interval is the frequency of the unknown
frequency source, in Hertz.
Digital Multimeter :
There are two main types of multimeters. One of the first and oldest multimeters is
the analog meter and the other, now more widely used meter is the digital multimeter .
A digital multimeter (DMM) is a multifunctional meter that displays its electrical
quantitative values on an LCD screen. A digital multimeter much like an analog meter, it is
able to read voltage, current, and resistance. What makes a digital multimeter differ from the
analog meter is its ability to display measured electrical values quickly without any
computations. Because of its design, a processor can be built into the meter which allows the
user to take measurements of frequency, the inductance of a coil, capacitance of a capacitor,
and a host of other high functional electrical measurements. There two types of digital
multimeters (DMM): scalable digital multimeter and auto-ranging digital multimeter .
When working with the scalable digital multimeter you need to have an idea of the value of
voltage, current, or resistance that you are attempting to measure. Failure to observe these
values will result in inaccurate readings and possible damage to the meter. The auto-ranging
digital multimeter is more widely used due to its ease, high functionality, and quick display
readings achieved without the user completing the calculations.

The above figure represents the digital multimeter block diagram with all the functional
blocks. The auto-ranging digital multimeter (DMM) only requires you to choose your
electrical quantity you are attempting to measure, make sure you are properly placing your
leads into the correct terminals and then reading the LCD display. Auto-ranging digital
multimeters allow technicians to spend more time getting to the root of a problem instead of
switching and calculating.
Step by Step Guide on how to use a multimeter to test for voltage:

Testing for voltage is carried out to ensure the effectiveness of the electrical
system. Loads (for example lights or motors) that are designed to do the work need a
nominal voltage to operate. Overvoltage will result in equipment failure and not enough
voltage will result in the load not turn on. When testing voltage there is an expected voltage
reading to look for. If the load is rated at 120 volts then the expected reading from the outlet
needs to be 120 volts plus or minus 10%. If the voltage reading is out of specifications then
the problem can be found using the voltmeter to isolate the load and find if there is a problem
with the source or the load.
Here is a step by step guide on how to use a multimeter to test for voltage:
1. First, figure out whether the application being testing utilizes AC or DC
voltage. Afterward, adjust the meter dial to the suitable function to DC Voltage or AC
voltage.
2. Adjust the range to the number little higher than the predictive value. If the value
being measured is unknown, then set the range to the maximum available number.
3. Plug in the test leads into the common (black) and voltage (red) terminals.
4. Apply the leads to the test circuit.
5. Position and reposition the test till a dependable reading appears on the meter LCD.
6. While measuring AC voltage, variations may happen in the reading. As the test
continues the measurement will steady.
Step by Step Guide on how to use a multimeter to test for Resistance
Resistance testing is done to ensure the load or circuit being tested is complete. A complete
circuit means there is no break or opening in the wires connected to the load or the internal
components of the device being tested. An open circuit or broken line means that the load
will not work as designed. Resistance testing is sometimes referred to as continuity testing.
Continuity testing does the same action as resistance testing with the exception that
continuity testing emits an audible sound indicating that the circuit or wires are complete.
The resistance testing and continuity testing are also a good way to check for short-circuits
and the ground fault which are events that cause circuit breakers to trip, fuses to blow, and
possible injury to workers in the field.
To test resistance with a Digital Multimeter

1. Turn the power off in the circuit being tested.
2. Adjust the meter dial to the resistance mode.
3. Choose the suitable range on the dial.
4. Plug in your test leads into the suitable terminals.
5. Connect the leads to the component being tested and note a reading.
Note: It is important to have good contact between the test leads and circuit being tested.
Dirt, bodily contact, and poor test lead connection can considerably alter the readings.

Digital Tachometer:
The word tachometer is derived from two Greek words: tachos mean “speed” and metron
means “to measure”. A digital tachometer is a digital device that measures and indicates the
speed of a rotating object. A rotating object may be a bike tire, a car tire or a ceiling fan,
or any other motor, and so on. A digital tachometer circuit comprises LCD or LED readout
and a memory for storage. Digital tachometers are more common these days and they provide
numerical readings instead of dials and needles.
A digital tachometer is an optical encoder that determines the angular velocity of a rotating
shaft or motor. Digital tachometers are used in different applications such as automobiles,
airplanes, and medical and instrumentation applications.
It works on the principle of a tachometer generator, which means when a motor is

operated as a generator, it produces the voltage according to the velocity of the shaft. It is
also known as revolution-counter, and its operating principle can be electromagnetic,
electronic, or optical-based. Power, accuracy, RPM range, measurements, and display are the
specifications of a tachometer. Tachometers can be analog or digital indicating meters.
Digital Tachometer Types:
Digital tachometers are classified into four types based on data acquisition and measurement
techniques.
 Based on the data acquisition technique, the tachometers are of the following types:
1. Contact type
2. Non Contact type.

 Based on the measurement technique, the tachometers are of the following types:
1. Time measurement
2. Frequency measurement
Contact Type Digital Tachometer:

A tachometer which is in contact with the rotating shaft is known as contact type tachometer.
This kind of tachometer is generally fixed to the machine or electric motor. An optical
encoder or magnetic sensor can also be attached to this so that it measures its RPM. Digital
Tachometers are capable of measuring low-speeds at 0.5 rpm and high speed at 10,000 rpm
and are equipped with a storage pocket for the circumferential measurement. The
specifications of this tachometer are LCD 5 digit display, the operational temperature range
of 0 to + 40oC, temperature storage range of – 20 to + 55o C, and rotating speed of about 0.5
to 10,000 rpm.
Non-Contact Type Digital Tachometer:

A tachometer that does not need any physical contact with the rotating shaft is called a non-
contact digital tachometer. In this type, a laser or an optical disk is attached to the rotating
shaft, and it can be read by an IR beam or laser, which is directed by the tachometer.
This type of tachometer can measure from 1 to 99,999 rpm; the measurement angle is less
than 120 degrees, and the tachometer has a five-digit LCD. These types of tachometers are
efficient, durable, accurate, and compact, and also visible from long distance.
Time Measurement Digital Tachometer

A tachometer that calculates the speed by measuring the time interval between incoming
pulses is known as a time-based digital tachometer. The resolution of this tachometer is
independent of the speed of the measurement, and it is more accurate for measuring low
speed.
Frequency Measurement Digital Tachometer:

A tachometer that calculates the speed by measuring the frequency of the pulses is called as a
frequency-based digital tachometer. This type of tachometer is designed by using a red LED,
and the revolution of this tachometer depends on the rotating shaft, and it is more accurate for
measuring high speed. These tachometers are of low-cost and high-efficiency, which is in
between 1Hz-12 KHz.
The internal operation of these tachometers can be with the use of a tachometer generator or
purely with the electronic components.

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UNIT-1

CLASSIFICATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS:

1. Absolute (or primary) instruments.

B Sreenivas Reddy,Asst.Professor,Dept.of EEE,SVCE,Tirupati. Page 1

1) Deflecting system producing deflecting torque T d

B Sreenivas Reddy,Asst.Professor,Dept.of EEE,SVCE,Tirupati. Page 2

B Sreenivas Reddy,Asst.Professor,Dept.of EEE,SVCE,Tirupati. Page 3

B Sreenivas Reddy,Asst.Professor,Dept.of EEE,SVCE,Tirupati. Page 4

B Sreenivas Reddy,Asst.Professor,Dept.of EEE,SVCE,Tirupati. Page 6

B Sreenivas Reddy,Asst.Professor,Dept.of EEE,SVCE,Tirupati. Page 8

Attraction type moving iron instruments:

Construction of Attraction Type Moving Iron Instrument :

B Sreenivas Reddy,Asst.Professor,Dept.of EEE,SVCE,Tirupati. Page 15

Working of Attraction Type Moving Iron Instrument :

B Sreenivas Reddy,Asst.Professor,Dept.of EEE,SVCE,Tirupati. Page 16

 Td = Deflection torque in N-m

The voltage drop across the ammeter is given by,

The energy consumed by the meter,

= LIdI + 1/2 I2 dL ...(2)

B Sreenivas Reddy,Asst.Professor,Dept.of EEE,SVCE,Tirupati. Page 17

Advantages of Attraction Type MI Instruments :

Disadvantages of Attraction Type MI Instruments :

Applications of Attraction Type MI Instruments :

Repulsion type moving iron instruments:

B Sreenivas Reddy,Asst.Professor,Dept.of EEE,SVCE,Tirupati. Page 18

Construction of Repulsion Type Moving Iron Instrument :

B Sreenivas Reddy,Asst.Professor,Dept.of EEE,SVCE,Tirupati. Page 19

Co-axial Vane Repulsion Type Instrument :

Working of Repulsion Type Moving Iron Instrument :

B Sreenivas Reddy,Asst.Professor,Dept.of EEE,SVCE,Tirupati. Page 20

Advantages of Repulsion Type Moving Iron Instruments :

B Sreenivas Reddy,Asst.Professor,Dept.of EEE,SVCE,Tirupati. Page 21

Methods adopted to reduce this error are,

Errors due to Stray Magnetic Fields :

Errors due to Change in Frequency :

B Sreenivas Reddy,Asst.Professor,Dept.of EEE,SVCE,Tirupati. Page 22

B Sreenivas Reddy,Asst.Professor,Dept.of EEE,SVCE,Tirupati. Page 23

Working Principle of PMMC Instrument :

B Sreenivas Reddy,Asst.Professor,Dept.of EEE,SVCE,Tirupati. Page 24

Torque Equation for PMMC Instrument :

Therefore, deflecting torque is given by,

B Sreenivas Reddy,Asst.Professor,Dept.of EEE,SVCE,Tirupati. Page 25

Errors in PMMC Instrument :

B Sreenivas Reddy,Asst.Professor,Dept.of EEE,SVCE,Tirupati. Page 26

Compensation of the Errors in PMMC Instruments :

Electrodynamometer Type Instruments:

Construction of Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter :

B Sreenivas Reddy,Asst.Professor,Dept.of EEE,SVCE,Tirupati. Page 27

B Sreenivas Reddy,Asst.Professor,Dept.of EEE,SVCE,Tirupati. Page 28

Working of Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter :

Expression for Torque :

 ip = Instantaneous current in the fixed coil

The deflecting torque is given by,

But, the instantaneous torque is given by,

Substituting equation 2 in 1, we get,

B Sreenivas Reddy,Asst.Professor,Dept.of EEE,SVCE,Tirupati. Page 29

Errors in Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter :

 Errors due to mutual inductance.