COMPUTER NETWORKS

Topic 1: Introduction
DATA COMMUNICATION AND
NETWORKING OVERVIEW
COMMUNICATIONS MODEL
COMMUNICATIONS MODEL
• Source
• generates data to be transmitted
• Transmitter
• Converts data into transmittable signals
• Transmission System
• Carries data
• Receiver
• Converts received signal into data
• Destination
• Takes incoming data
COMMUNICATIONS MODEL
TERMINOLOGY
Transmission system utilization
- Efficient use of shared transmission facilities
Interface
- Connection to the transmission system in order to communicate
Signal Generation
- Manipulation of signal properties such that they are transmittable,
and interpretable by the receiver
Synchronization
- Establishment of common timing between sender and receiver
TERMINOLOGY
Exchange Management
- Conventions used to address communication requirements
Error Detection + Correction
- Correction and detection of distorted signals
Flow Control
- Technique to assure that the source does not overwhelm the receiver
with data
Addressing
- Method of identifying a communication device
TERMINOLOGY
Routing
- Determination of a path from source to destination
Recovery
- To resume activity or restore initial device states after the occurrence of
an error
Message Formatting
- Form of data to be transmitted
Security
- Assurance that data is uncorrupted has undergone controlled access
TERMINOLOGY
Network Management
- systems or actions that help maintain, characterize, or
troubleshoot a network
NETWORKING
• Point to point communication not usually practical
• Devices are too far apart
• Large set of devices would need impractical number of connections
• Solution is a communications network
• Wide Area Network (WAN)
• Local Area Network (LAN)
LOCAL AREA NETWORKS
• Operate within limited geographical area
• Allow multi-access to high-bandwidth media
• Local administration control of the network
• Full-time connectivity to local services
• Connect physically adjacent devices
• Usually broadcast systems
• Technologies:
• Ethernet
• Token Ring
• FDDI
WIDE AREA NETWORKS
• Operate over a wide geographical area
• Allow access over serial interfaces operating at lower speeds
• Full-time or part-time connectivity
• Rely in part on common carrier circuits
• Connect devices separated over wide, global areas
• Technologies:
• Frame Relay
• DSL
• ATM
CIRCUIT SWITCHING
• Dedicated communications path established for the duration of the conversation
• e.g. telephone network
PACKET SWITCHING
• Data sent out of sequence
• Small chunks (packets) of data at a time
• Packets passed from node to node between source and destination
• Used for terminal to computer and computer to computer communications
METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORKS
• Middle ground between LAN and WAN
• Private or public network
• High speed
• Large area
• Usually consists of two or more LANs in a common geographic area
BANDWIDTH
• Amount of information that can flow through a network connection in a given period of time
• Finite
• Important factor used to analyze network performance
• Affecting factors:
• Technology used
• Media type
PIPE ANALOGY
THROUGHPUT
• Actual measured bandwidth, at a specific time of day, using specific
Internet routes, and while a specific set of data is transmitted on the
network
• Realistically, throughput < bandwidth
• Affecting factors:
• Internetworking devices
• Type of data being transferred
• Network topology
• Number of users on the network
• User computer
• Server computer
• Power conditions
UNIT OF MEASUREMENT
• bps – bits per second
• Important!

• Bps <> bps

• bps – bits/second
• Bps – bytes/second
• Therefore 1 Bps = 8 bps
DATA TRANSFER CALCULATION
• Best Transfer Time
T = S / BW
• Typical Transfer Time
T=S/P
• Where
• T – time in seconds
• S – data size in bits
• BW – bandwidth in bps
• P – throughput in bps
DATA TRANSFER CALCULATION
• Example:

Would it take less time to send the contents of a floppy disk full of
data (1.44 MB) over an ISDN line (128 kbps), or to send the
contents of a 10 GB hard drive full of data over an OC-48 line
(2.288 Gbps)?

Floppy Disk: T = 1.44 MB

128 Kbps
= 11796.48 Kb (1.44 x 1024 x 8)
128 Kbps
T = 92.16 seconds
DATA TRANSFER CALCULATION

10 GB Hard Drive: T= 10 GB
2.288 Gbps
= 80 Gb (10 x 8)
2.288 Gbps

T = 34.97 seconds

OC-48 Line is faster.

PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE
PROTOCOL
• A formal description of a set of rules and conventions that govern how entities in different
systems exchange information over a network.
• Entities – anything capable of sending and receiving information (i.e. computer apps)
• Systems – anything that contains one or more entities (i.e. computer terminals)
• Communicating entities must ‘speak the same language’
PROTOCOL
• Key elements
• Syntax - Data formats, Signal levels
• Semantics - Control information, Error handling
• Timing - Speed matching, Sequencing
PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE
• Tasks of communication is broken down into subtasks
• Subtasks are implemented separately as layers in the stack
• Functions needed in both systems
• Peer layers communicate
ANALYZING NETWORK IN LAYERS
• The concept of layers is used to describe communication from one computer to another.
ANALOGY OF NETWORK LAYERS
Network What is What objects What rules Where does
flowing? flow? govern? flow occur?

Water Water Hot, cold, Access rules Pipes

drinkable, (turning taps),
waste water flushing, not
putting certain
things in drains
Highway Vehicles Trucks, cars, Traffic laws and Roads and
cycles rules for highways
politeness
ADVANTAGES OF LAYERED APPROACH
• Breaks network communication into smaller, more manageable
parts.
• Standardizes network components to allow multiple vendor
development and support.
• Allows different types of network hardware and software to
communicate with each other.
• Prevents changes in one layer from affecting other layers.
• Divides network communication into smaller parts to make
learning it easier to understand.
SAMPLE PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE
• File transfer architecture (simplified)
SAMPLE PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE
• Network Access Layer
• Exchange of data between the computer and the network, handles addressing,
dependent on type of network used (LAN, packet switched, etc)
• Transport Layer
• Reliable data exchange, independent of network being used, independent of application
• Application Layer
• Support for different user applications
PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE
PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE
• Addressing Requirements:
• Network Address – to identify computers within a network
• Service Access Point – to identify applications within a computer
PROTOCOLS IN SIMPLIFIED
ARCHITECTURE
PROTOCOL DATA UNITS
• At each layer, protocols are used to communicate
• Control information is added to user data at each layer
• A layer may fragment user data
• Each fragment has a header added which contains information to be used by the peer layer
at the receiver
• Encapsulation - the wrapping of data in a particular protocol header.
PROTOCOL DATA UNITS
PROTOCOL DATA UNITS
STANDARD PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURES
• OSI Reference model
• TCP/IP protocol suite
OSI REFERENCE MODEL
• Open Systems Interconnection
• Created by ISO
• 7 layers
• Each layer performs a subset of the required communication functions
• Each layer relies on the next lower layer to perform more primitive functions
• Each layer provides services to the next higher layer
• Changes in one layer should not require changes in other layers
OSI REFERENCE MODEL
LAYER SPECIFIC STANDARDS
ELEMENTS OF STANDARDIZATION
• Protocol specification
• Operates between the same layer on two systems
• May involve different operating system
• Protocol specification must be precise
• Format of data units
• Semantics of all fields
• allowable sequence of PCUs
• Service definition
• Functional description of what is provided
• Addressing
• Referenced by SAPs
SERVICE PRIMITIVES AND PARAMETERS
• Services between adjacent layers expressed in terms of primitives and parameters
• Primitives specify function to be performed
• Parameters pass data and control info
 PRIMITIVE TYPES
REQUEST Invokes service
Parameter passing
INDICATION Indicates that a procedure has been invoked
Notify the service user of a provider-initiated action

RESPONSE Acknowledge or complete some procedure

previously invoked by an indication to that user

CONFIRM Acknowledge or complete some procedure

previously invoked by a request by the service user
TIMING SEQUENCE FOR SERVICE PRIMITIVES
OSI MODEL LAYERS
• Layer 1 – Physical
• Physical interface between devices
• Mechanical – physical properties
• Electrical – representation, transmission
• Functional – circuit functions
• Procedural – exchange sequence
OSI MODEL LAYERS
• Layer 2- Data Link
• Provides reliable transfer of data across media
• Physical addressing (e.g. MAC addresses)
• Flow control
• Error detection and notification
• Line discipline
• Means of activating, maintaining and deactivating a reliable link
OSI MODEL LAYERS
• Layer 3 – Network
• Logical addressing (IP address)
• Best effort delivery
• Path determination
OSI MODEL LAYERS
• Layer 4 – Transport
• Exchange of data between end systems
• Fault detection and recovery information flow control
• Data transport reliability
• Establish, maintain, terminate virtual circuits
• Quality of service
OSI MODEL LAYERS
• Layer 5 – Session
• Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between applications
• Control of dialogues between applications
• Grouping
• Recovery
OSI MODEL LAYERS
• Layer 6 – Presentation
• Data formats and coding
• Data compression
• Encryption
• Ensure data is readable by receiving systems
• Negotiates data transfer syntax for application layer
• Layer 7 – Application
• Provides network services to application processes (e.g.
email, file transfer, http)
• Means for applications to access OSI environment
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
• Developed by the US Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA) for its packet
switched network (ARPANET)
• Used by the global Internet
• No official model but a working one.
• 4 Layers
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
TCP/IP SUITE LAYERS
• Network Access Layer
• Exchange of data between end system and network
• Destination address provision
• Invoking services like priority
• Concerned physical and logical components, that are required to make a physical link
• Includes the networking technology details
• Equivalent of OSI Model Data Link Layer
• Common protocol is Ethernet
TCP/IP SUITE LAYERS
• Internet Layer
• Systems may be attached to different networks
• Routing functions across multiple networks
• Implemented in end systems and routers
• Best path determination and packet switching
• Common protocol is IP
• Equivalent of OSI Model Network Layer
TCP/IP SUITE LAYERS
• Transport Layer
• Ordering of delivery
• Quality of service issues of reliability, flow control, and error correction
• Equivalent of OSI Model Transport Layer
• Common protocol is TCP
TCP/IP SUITE LAYERS
• Application Layer
• Handles issues of representation, encoding, and dialog control
• Equivalent of OSI Model Application, Presentation and Session Layers
COMPARING THE OSI AND TCP/IP
MODELS
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN THE OSI AND
TCP/IP MODELS
• Layered.
• Both have application layers, though they include very different services.
• Both have comparable transport and network layers.
• Both assume packets are switched
TCP
• Transmission Control Protocol
• Usual transport layer protocol
• Reliable connection
• Connection - Temporary logical association between entities in different
systems
• TCP PDU
• Called TCP segment
• Includes source and destination port
• Identify respective users (applications)
• Connection refers to pair of ports
• TCP tracks segments between entities on each connection
UDP
• User Datagram Protocol
• “Best effort” service
• segments may be lost or delivered out of order to app
• No preservation of sequence
• No protection against duplication
• Minimum overhead
• Adds port addressing to IP
• Connectionless:
• No handshaking between UDP sender, receiver
• Each UDP segment handled independently of others
TCP/IP CONCEPTS
ADDRESSING LEVEL
• Level in architecture at which entity is named
• Unique address for each end system (computer) and router
• Network level address
• IP or internet address (TCP/IP)
• Network service access point or NSAP (OSI)
• Process within the system
• Port number (TCP/IP)
• Service access point or SAP (OSI)
PDUS IN TCP/IP
EXAMPLES OF TCP/IP PROTOCOLS
INTRO TO TCP/IP ADDRESSING
IP ADDRESS
• Logical address
• Used to identify communicating systems
• Assigned to each connection point
• 32-bit sequence
• Written as four decimal numbers separated by periods (Dotted-decimal notation)

Binary: 11000000 10101000 00000001 00001000

Decimal: 192.168.1.8
DECIMAL – BINARY CONVERSION

Convert 127.16.3.128 to binary

01111111 00010000 00000011 10000000

Convert 10110110 00100001 01110001 00000010
to dotted decimal notation
182.33.113.2
IPV4 ADDRESSING
• Router uses IP to forward packets from the source network to the destination network.
• IP address has 2 parts
• Network Identifier
• Host Identifier
• Hierarchical – Each octet breaks down into 256 subgroups
• Addresses are divided into classes to define the large, medium, and small networks.
SUBNET MASK
• Distinguishes network from host address
• 1s indicate network identifier, 0s indicate host identifier
• Ex. IP Address: 192.168.1.1
Mask: 255.255.255.0
*May also be written as 192.168.1.1/24

Network Host

11000000 10101000 00000001 00000001

11111111 11111111 11111111 00000000
ROUTER
• Layer 3 (Network) device
• Connect 2 or more logical networks
• Typically 1 network per interface
• Performs path determination to deliver packets from 1 network to another – ‘routing’
• Typical symbol in diagrams:
NETWORK AND HOST ADDRESSES

Network Host

1 1
2
3
2 1
3 1
INTERNET ADDRESSES
IP ADDRESS CLASSES
• Class A
• Large networks > 65545 hosts
• 1st octet 1-126 Subnet mask 255.0.0.0

Class B
• Medium networks > 254 hosts
• 1st octet 128-191 Subnet mask 255.255.0.0
IP ADDRESS CLASSES
• Class C
• Small networks < 255 hosts
• 1st octet 192-223 Subnet mask 255.255.255.0

 Class D
 Multicast addresses
 directed to predefined groups of addresses
 1st octet 224-239
IP ADDRESS CLASSES
• Class E
• Reserved for IETF research
• Not for use in the Internet
• 1st octet 240-255
IP ADDRESS CLASSES
Class Range of octet 1
A 1 -126 00000001 – 01111110
B 128-191 10000000 – 10111111
C 192-223 11000000 – 11011111
D 224-239 11100000 – 11101111
E 240-255 11110000 – 11111111

Note:
127.x.x.x is reserved for loopback testing (packet sent
back to source)
RESERVED ADDRESSES
• Network Address
• Identifies a network
• Host bits are all 0s
• Ex. IP Address 172.16.0.0 255.255.0.0
• Broadcast Address
• Used to send a packet to all hosts in a network
• Host bits are all 1s
• Ex. IP Address 172.16.255.255 255.255.0.0
SUBNETTING
• Method of dividing full network address classes into smaller pieces
• Prevents IP address exhaustion
• Borrow bits from the host portion of an IP address and designate as subnet address
SUBNETTING
• 2 Types
• Classful
• Subnets have the same size and subnet masks
• Considers network class

• VLSM – Variable Length Subnet Masking a.k.a. classless

• Subnets may have different subnet masks
• Disregards network class

• The first and last addresses of a subnet cannot be assigned to a

host
• First address is network address of the subnet
• Last address is broadcast address of the subnet
EXAMPLE
• The ABC company network is assigned the address 172.16.0.0.
The administrator must divide this into subnets for the 8
departments, allocating the maximum number of host addresses
for each subnet. Provide the ff information
• subnet mask of the subnets,
• network address, broadcast address and host address range of
each subnet
• maximum number of hosts per usable subnet
• Maximum number of hosts for the entire network
SOLUTION
• Step 1 – Determine the number of host bits via the subnet mask of the network address.
(use class default if not provided)

172.16.0.0 is class B -> subnet mask 255.255.0.0

16 host bits
 Step 2 – Borrow # of host bits exponent of
nearest power of 2 >= number of needed
subnets
Needed subnets is 8
Nearest power of 2 to 8 = 8
8 = 2 ^ 3  therefore borrow 3 bits from host
SOLUTION
• Step 3 – Determine the new subnet mask by converting the
borrowed leftmost host bits in the default mask to 1

default mask = 255.255.0.0

11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
New mask 11111111.11111111.11100000.00000000
= 255.255.224.0
SOLUTION
• Step 4 – To get subnet addresses, manipulate the borrowed
leftmost host bits in the original network address.

Original net – 172.16.0.0

10101100.00010000.00000000.00000000
Subnet 0 - 10101100.00010000.00000000.00000000
172.16.0.0
Subnet 1 - 10101100.00010000.00100000.00000000
172.16.32.0
Subnet 2 - 10101100.00010000.01000000.00000000
172.16.64.0
Subnet 3 - 10101100.00010000.01100000.00000000
172.16.96.0 …etc….
SOLUTION
• Step 5 – To get the broadcast address of each subnet, convert the remaining host bits of
each subnet to 1.

Subnet 0 - 10101100.00010000.00011111.11111111
172.16.31.255
Subnet 1 - 10101100.00010000.00111111.11111111
172.16.63.255
Subnet 2 - 10101100.00010000.01011111.11111111
172.16.95.255
Subnet 3 - 10101100.00010000.01111111.11111111
172.16.127.255 …etc….
SOLUTION
• Step 6 – Host range of each subnet is subnet address + 1 to
broadcast address -1

Net address Broadcast Host range

0 172.16.0.0 172.16.31.255 172.16.0.1 –

172.16.31.254
1 172.16.32.0 172.16.63.255 172.16.32.1 –
172.16.63.254
2 172.16.64.0 172.16.127.255 172.16.64.1 –
172.16.127.254

Etc…
SOLUTION
• Step 7 – Maximum number of hosts per usable subnet is the
decimal equivalent (not dotted decimal) of the remaining host bits
all set to 1 - 1

New mask = 255.255.224.0

11111111.11111111.11100000.00000000

Remaining host bits

00000000.00000000.00011111.11111111

11111 11111111 in binary = 8191

8191 – 1 = 8190 usable hosts per subnet
SOLUTION
• Step 8 – Maximum number of hosts for the entire network is (2 ^ number of borrowed host bits
) x maximum number of hosts per subnet

New mask = 255.255.224.0

11111111.11111111.11100000.00000000

Borrowed host bits = 3  8 subnets

Max hosts per subnet = 8190

8 X 8190 = 65520 max no. of hosts for entire network

THE COMPLETE TABLE
Network Broadcast Host Range Max
Address Address Hosts
0 172.16.0.0 172.16.31.255 172.16.0.1 – 172.16.31.254 8190

1 172.16.32.0 172.16.63.255 172.16.32.1 – 172.16.63.254 8190

2 172.16.64.0 172.16.127.255 172.16.64.1 – 172.16.95.254 8190

3 172.16.96.0 172.16.127.255 172.16.96.1 – 172.16.127.254 8190

4 172.16.128.0 172.16.159.255 172.16.128.1 – 172.16.159.254 8190

5 172.16.160.0 172.16.191.255 172.16.160.1 – 172.16.191.254 8190

6 172.16.192.0 172.16.223.255 172.16.192.1 – 172.16.233.254 8190

7 172.16.224.0 172.16.255.255 172.16.224.1 – 172.16.255.254 8190