Power System Protection Fundamentals

By
Engr. M. Hafeez ur Rahman
 Objectives

• Understand why protection system is needed?

• What type of faults occur in power system and
what are their effects?
• What are different components of the protection
system and how they work?
• What are different types of the protective relays
and how are these employed in the system?
• Know the “terms” used in power system
protection
 Purpose of Power System Protection

• Protect the power system against faults,

disturbances and interruptions
• Ensure system reliability, stability and
continuity
• Prevent and minimize damage to equipment
and system components
•  Protect the property, personnel and public
 Protective System Characteristics
•Dependability: the certainty that a protection system will operate when it is
required

•Security: the certainty that a protection system will not operate when it is not
required

Dependability + Security = Reliability

• Sensitivity: ability of relay to determine a faulted power system from a normal

power system

•Selectivity: ability of a relay to determine what part of the power system is under
fault

•Speed: ability of relay to sense and clear the fault as fast as possible

Continued
 Protective System Characteristics
• Functionality: monitor the current and/or
voltage of the power system to detect:

 problems and faults in the power system

 abnormal operating conditions such as

overloads, unbalances, voltage & frequency
variations
 Components of a Protection System
Relays

Circuit Breakers
 
Instrument Transformers:

Current Transformers
 
Voltage Transformers
 
DC Supply
 
Control Cables
 Instrument Transformers
Current Transformer (CT)
A device which transforms the current of the
power system from large primary values to
safe secondary values (usually 5A or 1A)

Potential (or Voltage) Transformer (PT or VT)

• A device which transforms the voltage of the
power system from primary values to safe
secondary values (usually 110 or 120V)
 A Good Day in System Protection……

– CTs and VTs bring electrical info to relays

– Relays sense current and voltage and declare fault
– Relays send tripping signals to circuit breakers
through control circuits
– Circuit breaker(s) correctly trip

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 A Bad Day in System Protection……

– CTs or VTs are shorted, opened, or their wiring

damaged
– Relays do not sense fault due to setting errors,
defective components, CT saturation
– Control wires cut or batteries dead so no signal is
sent from relay to circuit breaker
– Circuit breakers do not operate due to loss of power,
burnt trip coil or mechanical fault

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What is an Electrical Fault?
• Electrical fault is an abnormal condition, caused by
failures in electrical equipment such as transformers,
motor, cable and busbar etc. Theses faults cause
interruption to electric flows, equipment damages and
even cause death of humans, birds and animals

• Under normal operating conditions, power system

equipment or lines carry normal voltages and currents
ensuring a safer operation of the system. But when
fault occurs, excessively high currents flow in the
circuits, causing damage to equipment and devices.
 Type of Faults
Open Circuit Faults
Open circuit faults are also called series faults and are caused by opening
or breaking of single, two or three phases.
 Short Circuit Faults

The various possible short circuit fault conditions

include:
• three phase to earth
• three phase together but no earth
• phase to phase
• two phase to earth
• single phase to earth
• phase to phase plus single phase to earth
Short Circuit Faults
Short Circuit Faults
Short circuit faults are also called shunt faults. These are
the most common and dangerous faults, resulting in the
flow of abnormal high short circuit currents through the
equipment or transmission lines. These short circuit
currents lead to:

Extensive damage of insulation of the equipment.

An arc in transmission lines, causing considerable

damage to the element of the power system.
Arc Flash Hazard

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Another analytical classification of faults in the electrical
power system is symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults.
Symmetrical faults:
•A symmetrical fault is also called as balanced fault.
•It produces symmetrical fault currents that are
displaced by 120 degree each other. Since fault currents
are balanced, so system remains balanced, but results in
severe damage to the electrical system components.
•Included are:
 all three phases simultaneously short circuited
 all three phases short circuited and earthed
 Symmetrical Faults
L−L−L−G and L−L−L
 Only 2-5 percent of system faults are symmetrical faults.
 Analysis of these faults is easy and is required for selecting
relays, settings, rupturing capacity of the circuit breakers and rating
of the protective switchgear.
Unsymmetrical or unbalanced faults
 Unsymmetrical Faults
• These are very common and less severe than symmetrical
faults.
• These are also called unbalanced faults since their
occurrence causes unbalance in the system. Unbalance of
the system means that that impedance values are different
in each phase causing unbalance current to flow in the
phases. These currents have different magnitudes with
unequal phase displacement
• These faults include:
• All single and two phase open circuit faults
• All single and double line short circuits or short circuits to
ground
 Unsymmetrical faults (continued)

• Line to ground fault (L-G) is most common fault

and 70 to 80 percent of faults are of this type.
• Could be either permanent or transient
• Double line to ground faults cause two lines to
make contact with ground. These are severe
faults and the occurrence of these faults is 15 to
20 percent.
• Lines to line faults occur when two conductors
make contact with each other mainly while
swinging of lines due to heavy winds. 5- 10
percent of the faults are of this type.
 Unsymmetrical faults (continued)
• Unsymmetrical faults are analyzed to determine
the short circuit voltages and currents in all parts
of the system. The analysis of these faults is
difficult compared to symmetrical faults.
• This analysis is necessary for determining the size
of a circuit breaker for largest short circuit
current. The greater current usually occurs for
either L-G or L-L fault.
• The analysis is done by transforming the
unbalanced system into balanced positive,
negative and zero sequence phasors.
 Symmetrical Components
Present During Shunt Faults
 Three phase fault  Phaseto
– Positive ground fault
– Positive
 Phase to phase – Negative
fault – Zero
– Positive
– Negative
 Positive Phase Sequence
 Each have the
same magnitude.
 Each positive Vc1
sequence voltage
or current quantity
Va1
is displaced 120°
from one another. Vb1
 Positive Phase Sequence
 The positive
sequence
quantities have a- Vc1
b-c, counter clock-
wise, phase
rotation. Va1
Vb1
 Negative Phase Sequence
 Each have the
same magnitude.
 Each negative Vb2
sequence voltage
or current quantity
Va2
is displaced 120°
from one another. Vc2
 Negative Phase Sequence
 Each have the
same magnitude.
 Each negative Vb2
sequence voltage
or current quantity
Va2
is displaced 120°
from one another. Vc2
 Zero Phase Sequence
 Each zero
sequence quantity
has the same Vc0
magnitude.
Vb0
 All three phasors
with no angular
displacement
Va0
between them, all
in phase.
 Symmetrical Components
Equations
 Each
phase quantity is equal to the
sum of its symmetrical phasors.

 Va = Va0 + Va1 +Va2

 Vb = Vb0 + Vb1 +Vb2
 Vc = Vc0 + Vc1 +Vc2

 Thecommon form of the equations

are written in a-phase terms.
A Study of a Fault…….

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 Causes of Electrical Faults
• Weather conditions: It includes lighting strokes, heavy rains, heavy
winds, salt deposition on overhead lines and conductors, snow and ice
accumulation on transmission lines, etc. These environmental conditions
interrupt the power supply and also damage electrical installations.

• Equipment failures: Various electrical equipment like generators, motors,

transformers, reactors, CBs, isolators, switching devices, etc could
malfunction due to ageing and insulation failure. Loose clamps, braces or
joints of conductors or cables.

• System Disturbances: These include improper installations, overloading

of equipment, insulation failure due to lighting surges and transient
overvoltage generated in the switching operation.
 Causes of Electrical Faults (continued)
• Unpredictable happenings: such as falling of some heavy structure or trees
across the lines, vehicles colliding with the towers or poles, birds shorting the
lines, aircraft colliding with the lines, line or tower breaks by angry mob,
sabotage or theft of transmission line components etc.

• Natural disasters: like earthquakes, floods, heavy rains etc.

• Human errors: Electrical faults are also caused due to human errors such as
inadequate design, selecting improper rating of equipment or devices,
forgetting metallic or electrical conducting parts after servicing or
maintenance, switching the circuit while it is under servicing, etc.

• Smoke of fires: Ionization of air, due to smoke particles, surrounding the

overhead lines results in spark between the lines or between conductors to
insulator. This flashover causes insulators to lose their insulting capacity due
to high voltages.
 Effects of electrical faults
• Over current flow:
When a fault occurs, it creates a very low impedance path for the current flow.
This results in a very high current being drawn from the supply, which abnormally
overheats the electrical equipment, thus damaging and reducing life span of their
insulation.

Difference between Overcurrent and Overload

• Overcurrent means excessive current or current beyond the acceptable current
rating of equipment. It generally operates instantly. Short circuit is a type of
overcurrent

• Overload means continuousy running a machine or apparatus, beyond its capacity,

which will ioverheat it. Overcurrent also causes overheating of the equipment.
Hence, an overload protection s also a type of overcurrent protection. Overload
protection typically operates on an inverse time curve where the tripping time
becomes less as the current increases. Overload relays as well as “slow blow” fuses
are commonly used to provide overload protection.
Effects of electrical faults (continued)
• Voltage fluctuations: The operating system voltages can go below or above their
acceptance values that creates harmful effect to the service rendered by the
power system. The power flow is severely restricted or even completely blocked
as long as the short circuit fault persists.
• Loss of equipment: Heavy current due to short circuit faults result in the
components being burnt completely which leads to improper working of
equipment or device. Sometimes heavy fire causes complete burnout of the
equipments.
• Disturbs interconnected active circuits: Faults not only affect the location at
which they occur but also disturbs the active interconnected circuits adjacent to
the faulted line.
• Danger to operating personnel: Fault occurrence can also cause shocks to
individuals. Severity of the shock depends on the current and voltage at fault
location and even may lead to death.
• Electrical fires: Short circuit causes flashovers and sparks due to the ionization of
air between two conducting paths, which further leads to fire and explosion in
electric circuits and equipment.
 Fire Classification
Class A fires involve combustible materials such as paper, wood,
fabric, cardboard and plastics.

Class B fires involve flammable or combustible liquids such as petrol, grease

kerosene, paraffin, and oil.

Class C fires involve flammable gases, such as propane, butane and methane.

Class D fires involve combustible metals, such as magnesium, titanium,

potassium and sodium.

Class F fires are specific to cooking oils and fats

Class E is sometimes given to fires involving electrical circuits or electrical and electronic
equipment (symbol not yet approved by any international standards organization)
 Fire Extinguishers Types
Water Fire Extinguishers 
•Filled with ordinary tap water.
•Suitable for Class-A fires
•Red in colour

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Fire Extinguishers 

•Suitable for Class-B fires involving flammable liquids
•Also recommended for fires involving live electrical equipment.
•Painted bright red with a black panel above the operating instructions
•Have a distinctive horn-shaped nozzle at the side or a hose with a horn on the larger
models.
 
Foam Fire Extinguishers 
•Aqueous film forming foam fire extinguishers (AFFF)
•Suitable for Class-A and Class-B fires.
•Painted red with a cream panel above the operating instructions.
 
23-May-2012

Kohat grid station inferno

On the night of May 17, an intense fire erupted in Kohat Grid Station of Peshawar
Electricity Supply Company (PESCO), which burnt it to ashes.

One power transformer was completely destroyed and the adjacent one was severely damaged along
with associated cables and installations. Consequently, cities of Kohat and Hangu as well as the
surrounding areas were plunged into darkness for many hours. The profusely dense blaze and flames
were visible from miles away. Fire brigade reached on site and started controlling the fire; fortunately it
was mainly quenched by heavy rainfall.

As a matter of fact, fire is always an effect of some deliberate cause. If the possibilities of such a cause
are reduced through adoption of proper preventive techniques, there will be obviously no effect.

However, it appears that no fire prevention measures exist in Kohat to nip the evil in the bud. In the first
instance, cause of this huge fire could be attributed to excessive heating of the transformers because of
their abnormal overloading. The cooling system of transformers could be either non-functional or
ineffective due to many reasons including lack of maintenance or gross overlooking of the operational
staff.

Nevertheless, the real cause could be ascertained through an impartial enquiry of the accident, which
must be conducted by PESCO or PEPCO to fix the responsibility of the huge loss as a result of this fire,
which has to be ultimately sustained by tax-payers of the country for no fault of theirs.

Furthermore, being an ex-employee of PEPCO, I can safely predict that the grid station could be devoid
of proper fire fighting apparatus, which includes installation of firstly, water sprinklers around the
transformers, circuit breakers and all major electrical equipment and secondly, automatic as well as
manual fire extinguishers at appropriate points in the station yard.

These devices are initiated through an automatic fire detection and alarm system, which senses even a
minor inception of fire and becomes functional in no time. Thus the fire is controlled at an initial stage
and its ill effects are aptly reduced to bare minimum.
In fact, all of PEPCO grid stations seldom have adequate fire prevention system,
which could drastically eliminate potential fire hazards. And if it is luckily installed
anywhere then it is hardly maintained by PEPCO staff, thus making it inoperable.
PEPCO grid operation and maintenance staff does not possess essential know
how of the latest fire safety procedures and ways to tackle any fire incident.

During 2010, I visited some grid stations under Gujranwala Power Company
(GEPCO) and specifically noted gross negligence of concerned staff in proper
maintenance of grid stations as a whole. Yards of many of these grid stations were
having heaps of dried grass and wooden planks, which were quite susceptible to
fire. I saw some oil drums near the live electrical installations, which was a serious
safety hazard but remained unnoticed by all concerned. Some of these grid stations
were having manual fire extinguishers, but these were least attended and never
filled after expiry. No fire drill was ever conducted therein due to which the staff on
duty was unable to operate them in case of any impending emergency.
This sad situation seems to be prevalent everywhere in PEPCO. That’s why we are
witnessing accidents like that of Kohat. PEPCO management needs to install latest
loss prevention gadgets in all of its critical facilities as well as cultivate a culture of
safety perception and awareness in its staff.
M. HAFEEZUR RAHMAN
Jubail, KSA
 Fire Extinguishers Types (continued)
Dry Powder Fire Extinguishers 
• Excellent all-rounder fire extinguishers suitable for Class-A, Class-B and Class-C fires.
• Safe for use on fires involving electrical equipment. In that case must have electrical safety
pictogram
 

• Painted red with a blue panel above the operating instructions.

• Special Powder Fire Extinguishers 

• Special powder fire extinguishers are used for Class-D flammable metal fires.
• Painted red with a blue panel above the operating instructions.

• Wet Chemical Fire Extinguishers 

• Suitable for Class-F deep fat cooking fires.
• Painted red with a yellow panel above the operating instructions.
 Overcurrent Protection
Overcurrent protection operates when the system current increases beyond the
normal operating value. Mostly used for:

• Primary protection for radial feeders

• Backup protection for more sophisticated relay schemes
• Supervisory elements for more sophisticated relay schemes
• Overload protection

Depending upon the time of operation, overcurrent relays may be categorized

as:

• instantaneous over current relay (50, 50N)

• inverse time overcurrent relay (51, 51N)
• definite time overcurrent relay ***
• very inverse overcurrent relay ***
• extremely inverse overcurrent relay ***
Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay
• This relay operates as soon as the current exceeds the pre₋set operating value.
• There is no time delay except the short time interval between the pick up value and
the closing of the relay contacts.
• Quickly and speedily operates for faults very close to the source where the fault
current is the greatest.

Inverse-Time Overcurrent Relay

•Works like a fuse: Trip fast for high overcurrent, Trip slow for small overcurrent
•The operating time varies inversely with the magnitude of the pick up value.
•At values of current less than pick up value, the relay never operates. At higher
values, the operating time of the relay decrease with the increase of the current.
• This type of relay is widely used in distribution networks and industrial plant systems.

Very Inverse Relay

In such relay, the time-current characteristic is inverse over a greater range and after
saturation tends to be the definite time. Relays with very inverse time characteristic
are employed on feeders and long sub-transmission lines.
 
Extremely Inverse Relay
In this type of relay, the core saturation occurs at the very large stage. Such types of
relays are quite suitable for the protection of transformers, cables, etc.
•

Overcurrent Relays Performance

Parameter Rating
Sensitivity Poor

Selectivity Poor

Speed Depends

Simplicity Best
Cost Economical
 Directional Overcurrent Relay
(Device No. 67)
Characteristics:
 Determines that current is flowing in the
forward direction
 Detects current above normal and trips
 Will not respond to reverse faults
 More selective
 How do we determine direction?
Which way it goes? Because AC current
reverses direction every half cycle!
Solution:
• We need a reference called a Polarizing
Quantity
• Phase angle of current with respect to
voltage for example
Phase angle of current with respect to voltage is taken as a
reference point for Direction O/C relays
Directional Overcurrent Relays Performance

Parameter Rating
Sensitivity Depends
Selectivity Good

Speed Good
Simplicity Moderate
Cost Higher
 Earth Fault Protection
(Device No. 50N, 51N)
Earth fault is the unintended fault between the live
conductor and the earth. It also occurs, because of the
insulation breakdown. When this fault occurs the short-
circuit currents flow through the system to the earth.
These fault currents damage the equipment of the power
system and also interrupts the continuity of the supply.
Prominent earth fault protections are:
• Restricted earth fault (REF)
• Sensitive earth fault
• Standby earth fault
 Restricted earth fault (REF)
During an earth fault, the fault current flows depending
on the voltage level at point of fault. If a fault occurs at
a location where voltage to ground is less, the chances
of such earth fault getting detected are very less, and
thus the fault may aggravate. The REF scheme is a
solution to that. In this scheme, four CTs are connected
n each phase and in ground.
When there is an earth fault within the range of the 4
CTs, even at a low potential, the relay senses and trips.
Sensitive earth fault protection

It is given by using a core balance CT (CBCT). CBCT senses on the principle of Ir + Iy

+ Ib = 0. Any residual current becomes unbalance and is sensed by the CBCT, and if the
CBCT secondary current is more than relay set value, it trips.

Standby earth fault

It is just like a normal earth fault which acts on a CT connected at star (Y) point. It is
used as a backup protection.

GROUND FAULT CIRCUIT INTERRUPTER (GFCI) 

A GFCI is a protective device that detects ground faults in a circuit and prevents electric
shocks by interrupting the flow of electric current between the source of current and the
grounded surface. This flow of current is called as a "ground fault." Ground faults occur
when current is leaking somewhere; in effect, electricity is escaping to the ground. This
leakage current is very dangerous and could produce fatal consequences.
 Distance Protection (Device No. 21)
 Distance protection is the name given to the protection, whose action
depends on the distance of the feeding point to the fault.

 The time of operation of such protection is a function of the ratio of voltage

and current, i.e., impedance. This impedance between the distance relay and
the fault depends on the electrical distance between them.

 The relay monitors continuously the line current I through CT and the bus
voltage V through PT and operates when the V/I ratio decline below the set
value.

 The CT is connected in series with the line under protection.

 Under normal operating conditions, the impedance of the protected line is

Z. The relay is so designed it closes its contact whenever impedance of the
protected sections falls below the Z.
 The relay will not operate if fault is outside of the protected zone.
 Distance Protection (continued)
When a fault occurs on the line:
 magnitude of current at the fault point increases and voltage
decreases.
 If the fault is nearer to source, measured voltage is lesser, and
if the fault is farther, measured voltage is more.
 The angle of the current with respect to the voltage changes
to a lagging angle, usually between 60 to 85 degrees.
 The distance relay determines the impedance by Z = V/I. If the
impedance is within the reach setting of the relay, it will
operate.
 Distance Relays Performance

Parameter Rating
Sensitivity Good
Selectivity Better

Speed Better
Simplicity Poor
Cost Higher
 Differential Relays
ANSI Code 87

Simple concept:
• Measure current in vs. current out
• If they are not equal, then trips
• Operates on the difference in current – not
the total current
• Sensitivity is good
 Types of Differential Relays
• Differential Overcurrent:
Operates on magnitude of difference

• Percent Differential:
Difference must be a percentage of the total
current

• High Impedance Bus Differential

Application of Differential Relays
 Applied where high speed, high sensitivity, and
high selectivity is required

 Mostly used for:

• Transformers
• Generators
• Bus Sections
• Lines
Differential Relays Performance

Parameter Rating
Sensitivity Best
Selectivity Best

Speed Best
Simplicity Moderate
Cost Depends
 Transformer Protection
Power Transformer is the most vital part of a power
system. It is normal practice to install two units at a
substation to provide continuity of supply. However:

• Transformer faults are not so frequent

• Occur at windings being strained when carrying
through-fault current.
• Insulation life-span becomes less due to temporary
or extended overloading, leading to eventual failure.
 Transformer Protection (continued)

What can go wrong?

● Winding-to-winding faults
● Winding-to-ground faults
● Bushing faults
● Oil is carbonized and decomposed, looses its
cooling and insulation properties
● Gases develop inside the tank
 Transformer Protection

Thermal Protection
Overcurrent Protection
Differential Protection
(A simple scheme is shown next)
Buchholz Protection
(for conservator fitted units)
 
 Differential Protection for Transformer
• The power transformer is star connected on one side and delta connected
on the other side.
• The CTs on the star connected side are delta-connected and those on
delta-connected side are star-connected.
• This is done to compensate for phase differences on each side of the
Power Transformer. Thus, the resultant phase that is seen by the relay is
effectively Zero
• The neutral of the current transformer star connection and power
transformer star connections are grounded.
• The restraining coil is connected between the secondary winding of the
CTs.
• Restraining coils controls the sensitive activity of the system.
• The operating coil is placed between the tapping point of the restraining
coil and the star point of the current transformer secondary windings.
Working of Differential Protection System
Normally, the operating coil carries no current as the
current are balanced on both the side of the power
transformers. When the internal fault occurs in the
power transformer windings the balanced is disturbed
and the operating coils of the differential relay carry
current corresponding to the difference of the current
among the two sides of the transformers.Thus, the relay
trip the main circuit breakers on both sides of the power
transformers.
Problem Associated with Differenctial Protection System
When the transformer is energized, the transient inrush of magnetizing current
flows in the transformer. This current is as large as 10 times full load current
.This magnetizing current flows in the primary winding of the power
transformer due to which it causes a difference in current transformer output
and it makes the differential protection of the transformer to operate falsely.
To overcome this problem the kick fuse is placed across the relay coil. These
fuses are of the time-limit type with an inverse characteristic and do not
operate in short duration of the surge. When the fault occurs the fuses blow out
and the fault current flows through the relay coils and operate the protection
system. This problem can also be overcome by using a relay with an inverse
and definite minimum type characteristic instead of an instantaneous type.
A working example:

Consider a two winding, 11kV/132kV, 30MVA Power Transformer. 

The rated line current on the 11kV side of the Transformer is: 

I rated = √MVA / Line Voltage = 30000000 / (11000)(sqrt 3) 

          = 1574.59A
Thus, choose a CT with a primary rating of 1600/1.

The line current on the 132kV side of the Transformer is: 

Ir ated = 30000000 / (132000)(sqrt 3) 
          = 131.22A
Thus choose a CT with a primary rating of 200/1.

• Notice that in both cases, the current that the Bias Coils in the relay see is 1A at
both ends. Any deviation of this 1A will causes an imbalance within the relay, which
will consequently cause protection to operate and isolate the Transformer. 
 BUCHHOLZ RELAY

• This relay is used to protect Oil Immersed Transformers. The relay

comprises two floats contained in an enclosed housing located in
the pipe from the transformer tank to the conservators.
• Any fault in the transformer causes the oil to decompose.
generating a gas which passes up the pipe towards the
conservator tank, and thus trapped in the relay.
• In the case of a heavy fault, bulk displacement of the oil takes
place. In a two float relay, the upper float responds to the slow
accumulation of gas due to mild incipient faults. The lower relay is
deflected by oil surge caused by major faults. These floats control
contacts, which in the first case generates an alarm, and in the
second case, causes isolation of the transformer.
 Over Fluxing in Transformer
As per prevalent power transformer design practice, the peak rated value of
the flux density is kept about 1.7 to 1.8 Tesla, while the saturation flux density
of core of transformer is taken of the order of 1.9 to 2 Tesla which corresponds
to about 1.1 times the rated value. If during operation, a transformer is
subjected to carry more than above mentioned flux density, the transformer is
said to have faced over fluxing problem and consequent bad effects towards its
magnetizing operation. The maximum allowable over fluxing in
transformer shall not exceed 110%. The flux density in a transformer can be
expressed by

B = C V/f, Where C = a constant, V = Induced voltage and

f = Frequency.
The magnetic flux density is, therefore, proportional to the quotient of 
voltage and frequency (V/f). over fluxing can occur either due to increase in
voltage or decrease in frequency. The probability of over fluxing is relatively
high in step-up transformers in power stations compared to step - down
transformers in Sub-Stations
 Effect of Over Fluxing in Transformers
The flux in a transformer, under normal conditions is confined to
the core of transformer because of its high permeability compared
to the surrounding volume. When the flux density in the core
increases beyond saturation point, a substantial amount of flux is
diverted to steel structural parts and into the air. At saturation flux
density the core steel will over heat. Structural steel parts which are
not designed to carry magnetic flux will heat rapidly. Flux flowing
in unplanned air paths may link conducing loops in the windings,
tank base at the bottom of the core and structural parts. This will
result in circulating currents in these loops, which can cause
dangerous temperature increase. Under conditions of excessive over
fluxing, the transformer runs in over excitation cycle and heating of
the inner portion of the windings may be too much to generate
harmonics. It is obvious that the levels of loss which occur in the
winding at high excitation cannot be tolerated for long.
 Miscellaneous Protections Relays

Types ANSI Code

Under voltage 27
Over voltage 59
Reverse Power 46
Thermal 49
Synch Check 25
Frequency 81
Lock Out 86
DC Supervision
 One Line Diagram
• Non-dimensioned diagram showing how
pieces of electrical equipment are
connected
• Simplification of actual system
• Equipment is shown as boxes, circles and
other simple graphic symbols
• Symbols should follow ANSI or IEC
conventions
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Useful Conversions