POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION

Week-01

Shoaib Ahmed Shaikh

Lecturer (EE)
Sukkur IBA University
 Books:

1. Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications,

Fourth Edition By J. Lewis Blackburn, Thomas J.
Domin

2. Protective Relaying Theory and Applications By W.

A. Elmore

3. Power System Relaying, Fourth Edition By Stanley

H. Horowitz, Arun G. Phadke
4. Principle of Power system By V.K Mehta.
 Sessional :

1. Quiz(03) -10marks
2. Assignments(02) -05 marks
3. Presentation/Class performance -05 marks

================
Total - 20 marks
INTRODUCTION TO
POWER SYSTEM
PROTECTION
Protection
Protection is the science, skill, and art of applying and setting
relays or fuses, or both, to provide maximum sensitivity to faults
and undesirable conditions, but to avoid their operation under all
permissible or tolerable conditions.
 Power System Protection…..
Electrical energy systems consists of various equipments
connected together. Typically, power is generated at lower
voltages (a few kV) (3-phase ac voltage source) which is stepped
up by a transformer and fed into a transmission grid.
A transmission grid is a meshed network of high voltage lines
(underground or overhead) and transformers. It can have
multiple voltage levels like 500 kV, 220 kV, etc.
The power is delivered to load centers which may be far off
(even thousands of km's apart).
This system has to be protected from abnormalities (For example;

• A tree falling or touching an overhead line may cause a fault.

• A lightning strike can cause insulation failure.

• Pollution may result in degradation in performance of insulators

which may lead to breakdown.
• Under frequency or over frequency of a generator may result in
mechanical damage to its turbine requiring tripping of an Alternator)
which is the task of protection system.
Specially whenever human security is sacrificed or there exists
possibility of equipment damage, it is necessary to isolate and de-
energize the faulty equipment.
Planning System Protection……
One (Protection Engineer) can design into the electric system,
features that will:

1) Quickly isolate the affected portion of system and in this

manner maintain normal service for as much of system as possible
and minimize damage to affected portion of system

2) Provide alternate circuits, or automatic reclosing devices, or

both, where applicable, and in this manner minimize the duration
or the extent, or both, of supply and utilization equipment outages.
Elements of Power system to be
protected….
Transmission Line Protection and feeder protection

Transformer Protection

Generator Protection

Motor Protection

Bus bar Protection

 Objective and need of protection
The objective and need of electrical system protection and
coordination are to prevent injury to personnel, to minimize
damage to the system components, and to limit the extent and
duration of service interruption whenever equipment failure,
human error, or adverse natural events occur on any portion of the
system.
Importance of protection Knowledge:
Every consumer(domestic, commercial or industrial) wants
uninterrupted power supply because electricity loss may result
in:
 Financial loss

 Uncomforting

 Health loss

 Anxiety (unease)

 Educational loss
 Traffic jam

 Loss of money to generate electricity from small generators

 Damage equipment

“Therefore, Ideally there should be no power loss in the system”

 Practically , 100% reliable system, free from faults are
unavoidable. However, the frequency or rate of fault
occurring, and the possible damage can be minimized.
 Therefore all the electric installations have invariably
protective devices to minimize the damage.
 Therefore protection knowledge is very important to design a
good and reliable system.
The Purpose of protection:
 To safeguard the entire system to maintain continuity
of supply.
 To minimize damage and repair costs.

 To ensure safety of personnel.

 Overview of faults
• Electrical powers system is growing in size and
complexity in all sectors such as generation, transmission,
distribution and load systems. Types of faults like 
short circuit condition in power system network results in
severe economic losses and reduces the reliability of the
electrical system.
• Electrical fault is an abnormal condition, caused by
equipment failures such as transformers and rotating
machines, human errors and environmental conditions.
Theses faults cause interruption to electric flows,
equipment damages and even cause death of humans, birds
and animals.
• The fault in the power system is mainly categorized into
two types they are:
1. Open Circuit Fault
2. Short Circuit Fault.
• The faults in the power system may occur because of the
number of natural disturbances like lightning, high-speed
winds, earthquake, etc. It may also occur because of
some accidents like falling off a tree, vehicle colliding,
with supporting structure, aero plane crashing, etc.
• The different types of power system fault are shown
below in the image.
 FAULT STATISTICS

% Causes Of Faults
CAUSES % OF TOTAL
1. Lightning 12
2. Sleet, wind, mechanical (jumping conductors) 20
3. Apparatus failure 20
4. Switching to a fault 20
5. Miscellaneous (tree falling on line, birds, etc..) 28

Frequency of fault occurrence in power system

EQUIPMENT % OF TOTAL
Overhead lines 50
Cables 10
Transformers 10
Switchgear 15
Control equipment 3
Instrument transformers (CTs & PTs) 2
Miscellaneous 10
1. Open Circuit Fault
• The open circuit fault mainly occurs because of the
failure of one or two conductors. The open circuit fault
is categorized  as:
 Open Conductor Fault
 Two conductors Open Fault
 Three conductors Open Fault.
• The open circuit fault is shown in the figure (next slide).
2. Short-Circuit Fault
In this type of fault, the conductors of the different phases come into
contact with each other with a power line, power transformer or any
other circuit element due to which the large current flow in one or
two phases of the system. The short-circuit fault is divided into the
symmetrical and unsymmetrical fault.

1. Symmetrical Fault
The faults which involve all the three phases is known as the
symmetrical fault. Such types of fault remain balanced even after the
fault. The symmetrical faults mainly occur at the terminal of the
generators. The fault on the system may arise on account of the
resistance of the arc between the conductors or due to the lower
footing resistance. The symmetrical fault is sub-categorized into line-
to-line-to-line fault and three-phase line-to-ground-fault
 TYPES OF FAULTS ON POWER SYSTEM

The most dangerous fault, that occurs in a power system is the short
circuit. In 3 – phase ac power networks, the SC faults can be classified as;

1. Single phase to ground (L – G) 70%

2. Phase to phase (L – L ) 5%
3. Two phases to ground (L – L – G) 10%
4. Phase to phase and third phase to ground 2 or 3%
5. Three phase to ground (L – L – L – G) 2 or 3%
6. Three phase short circuited (L – L – L) 2 or 3%

 First 4 types are unsymmetrical and give rise to unsymmetrical currents

(different magnitude of currents in 3 - phases)
 The last 2 types are symmetrical and give rise to symmetrical currents
(equal fault currents in 3 - phases)
 The most common type of fault on power system is L G fault.
The balanced 3 – phase fault is very rare but it very severe and imposes
most severe duty on circuit breakers. (rating of CB depends on 3 phase
short circuit current).
Causes of electric faults:
• Weather conditions: It includes lighting strikes, heavy rains, heavy winds, salt
deposition on overhead lines and conductors, snow and ice accumulation on transmission
lines, etc. These environmental conditions interrupt the power supply and also damage
electrical installations.

• Equipment failures: Various electrical equipment like generators, motors, transformers,

reactors, switching devices, etc. causes short circuit faults due to malfunctioning, ageing,
insulation failure of cables and winding. These failures result in high current to flow
through the devices or equipment which further damages it.

• Human errors: Electrical faults are also caused due to human errors such as selecting
improper rating of equipment or devices, forgetting metallic or electrical conducting
parts after servicing or maintenance, switching the circuit while it is under servicing, etc.

• Smoke of fires: Ionization of air, due to smoke particles, surrounding the overhead lines
results in spark between the lines or between conductors to insulator. This flashover
causes insulators to lose their insulting capacity due to high voltages.
Harmful Effect of Faults on Power System:
On the occurrence of the fault, heavy short circuit current is flowing in the circuit. This
current have the following disadvantages. Their consequences are explained below in
details.

1.The heavy current due to fault causes excessive heating which may result in fire or
explosion.

2.Sometimes the short circuit current takes the form of an arc that may cause considerable
damage to the element of the power system.

3.The stability of the power system may be adversely affected, and even the complete
shutdown of the power system may occur.

4.Damage to other apparatus in the system may be caused due to overheating and due to
abnormal mechanical forces set up.
Short Circuit
Whenever a fault occurs on a network such that a large current flows in one or
more phases, a short-circuit is said to have occurred.
When a short circuit occurs, a heavy current called short circuit current flows
through the circuit. This can be beautifully illustrated by referring to Fig. 16.6
where a single-phase generator of voltage V and internal impedance Zi is supplying
to a load Z. Under normal conditions, the current in the circuit is limited by *load
impedance Z. However, if the load terminals get shorted due to any reason, the
circuit impedance is reduced to a very low value ; being Zi in this case. As Zi is
very small, therefore, a large current flows through the circuit. This is called short-
circuit current.
What is Short-Circuit, overload and Earth fault?
• When a short-circuit occurs, the voltage at fault point is reduced to zero and
current of abnormally high magnitude flows through the network to the point of
fault.
• On the other hand, an overload means that loads greater than the designed
values have been imposed on the system. Under such conditions, the voltage at
the overload point may be low, but not zero. The undervoltage conditions may
extend for some distance beyond the overload point into the remainder of the
system. The currents in the overloaded equipment are high but are substantially
lower than that in the case of a short-circuit.
• Earth fault is the unintentional fault between the live conductor and the earth.
It also occurs, because of the insulation breakdown. When the fault occurs, the
short-circuit currents flow through the system, and this current is returned
through the earth or any electrical equipment. This fault current damaged the
equipment of the power system and also interrupted the continuity of the supply.
A short-circuit current is differentiated from an overload by the fact that the
current is flowing outside of the normal path. These currents are much
larger than overload and can cause significant damage in the form of
thermal, magnetic, and arcing. Time is critical in the interruption of short
circuits from the system.
SYMMETRICAL AC COMPONENT OF THE FAULT CURRENT

There are three periods of time:

1. Sub-transient period: first cycle or so after the fault – AC current is very large
and falls rapidly;
2. Transient period: current falls at a slower rate;
3. Steady-state period: current reaches its steady value.
It is possible to determine the time constants for the sub-transient and transient
periods.
Causes of short-circuit.

A short circuit in the power system is the result of some kind of abnormal
conditions in the system. It may be caused due to internal and/or external effects.

(i) Internal effects are caused by breakdown of equipment or transmission lines,

from weakening of insulation in a generator, transformer etc. Such troubles may be
due to ageing of insulation, inadequate design or improper installation.

(ii) External effects causing short circuit include insulation failure due to lightning
surges, overloading of equipment causing excessive heating; mechanical damage by
public etc.
 HARMFUL EFFECTS OF SHORT CIRCUIT FAULTS ON
POWER SYSTEM
1. Heavy currents due to short – circuit cause excessive heating which may result in
fire or explosion.
2. Due to short circuit, arc may struck and damage the elements of power system.
(i.e., overhead conductors)
3. Unsymmetrical S.C faults introduce unbalance currents results in unbalance
voltages throughout the network.
4. Stability of the power system may be adversely affected and even the complete
shutdown of power system.
5. Damage to other apparatus in the system may be caused due to overheating and
abnormal mechanical forces set up.
6. there may be considerable reduction in voltage on healthy feeders connected to
the system having fault. This may cause either an abnormally high current being
drawn by the motors or the operation of no – voltage coils of motors. In the later
case loss of production may result as the motors will have to be restarted.
7. In an interconnected system, when a fault develops, reduction in voltage or
frequency may occur. In result motors, which normally take power from the supply,
starts feeding the fault, they may be termed as sources of fault power.
Short-Circuit Currents
Most of the failures on the power system lead to short-circuit fault and cause heavy current
to flow in the system. The calculations of these short-circuit currents are important for the
following reasons :

(i) A short-circuit on the power system is cleared by a circuit breaker or a fuse. It is

necessary, therefore, to know the maximum possible values of short-circuit current so
that switchgear of suitable rating may be installed to interrupt them.

(ii) The magnitude of short-circuit current determines the setting and sometimes the types
and location of protective system.

(iii) The magnitude of short-circuit current determines the size of the protective reactors
which must be inserted in the system so that the circuit breaker is able to withstand the
fault current.

(iv) The calculation of short-circuit currents enables us to make proper selection of the
associated apparatus (e.g. bus-bars, current transformers etc.) so that they can withstand
the forces that arise due to the occurrence of short circuits.
• As we know that The type of electrical failure that causes greatest concern is
the short circuit, or “fault” as it is usually called, but there are other abnormal
operating conditions peculiar to certain elements of the system that also require
attention. Some of the features of design and operation aimed at preventing
electrical failure are:

A. Provision of adequate insulation.

B. Coordination of insulation strength with the capabilities of lightning arresters.
C. Use of overhead ground wires and low tower-footing resistance.
D. Design for mechanical strength to reduce exposure, and to minimize the
likelihood of failure causable by animals, birds, insects, dirt, sleet, etc.
E. Proper operation and maintenance practices.
Some of the features of design and operation for mitigating the effects of failure
are:
A. Features that mitigate the immediate effects of an electrical failure.

1. Design to limit the magnitude of short-circuit current.1

a. By avoiding too large concentrations of generating capacity.
b. By using current-limiting impedance.

2. Design to withstand mechanical stresses and heating owing to short-circuit

currents.
3. Time-delay undervoltage devices on circuit breakers to prevent dropping loads
during momentary voltage dips.
4. Ground-fault neutralizers (Petersen coils).

B. Features for promptly disconnecting the faulty element.

1. Protective relaying.
2. Circuit breakers with enough interrupting capacity.
3. Fuses.
C. Features that mitigate the loss of the faulty element.
1. Alternate circuits.
2. Reserve generator and transformer capacity.
3. Automatic reclosing.

D. Features that operate throughout the period from the inception of the fault until
after its removal, to maintain voltage and stability.
1. Automatic voltage regulation.
2. Stability characteristics of generators.

E. Means for observing the electiveness of the foregoing features.

1. Automatic oscillographs.
2. Efficient human observation and record keeping.

F. Frequent surveys as system changes or additions are made, to be sure that the
foregoing features are still adequate.
• Thus, protective relaying is one of several features of system
design concerned with minimizing damage to equipment and
interruptions to service when electrical failures occur.
• When we say that relays “protect” we mean that, together with
other equipment, the relays help to minimize damage and improve
service. It will be evident that all the mitigation features are
dependent on one another for successfully minimizing the effects
of failure.
• Therefore, the capabilities and the application requirements of
protective-relaying equipment should be considered concurrently
with the other features. This statement is emphasized because
there is sometimes a tendency to think of the protective-relaying
equipment after all other design considerations are permanently
settled. Within economic limits, an electric power system should
be designed so that it can be adequately protected.
Basic Protective Equipment….
The isolation of short circuits and overloads requires the
application of protective equipment that will both:
i) sense an abnormal condition and then
ii) remove the affected portion from the system.
In some types the sensing device and the interrupting device are
completely separated, interconnected only through external control
wiring.
In other types the sensing and interrupting functions are combined
in the same device.
A fuse is both a sensing and interrupting device. It is connected
in series with the circuit and responds to thermal effects produced
by current flow through it. Its fusible element is designed to open
at a predetermined time depending on the amount of current that
flows.
Circuit breakers are interrupting devices only and must be used
in conjunction with sensing devices to fulfill the detection
function. In the case of medium and high voltage (hundreds of kV)
circuit breakers, the sensing devices are separate protective relays
or combinations of relays.
Components of a Typical Protection System…….

Protective Relays

Current and Voltage Transformers

Circuit Breakers

Fuses
Protective Relays
The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) defines
a relay as ‘‘an electric device that is designed to respond to input
conditions in a prescribed manner and, after specified conditions are
met, to cause contact operation or similar abrupt change in
associated electric control circuits.’’
The IEEE defines a protective relay as "a relay whose function is
to detect defective lines or apparatus or other power system
conditions of an abnormal or dangerous nature and to initiate
appropriate control circuit action" (IEEE 100, 2000).
Formally, a relay is a logical element which processes the inputs
(mostly voltages and currents) from the system/apparatus and
issues a trip decision if a fault within the relay's
jurisdiction/influence is detected.

Figure: A conceptual diagram of relay

Protective relays provide the brains to sense trouble, but as
low-energy devices, they are not able to open and isolate the
problem area of the power system.
Circuit breakers and various types of circuit interrupters,
including motor contactors and motor controllers, are used for
this and provide the muscle for fault isolation.
Thus, protective relays and circuit breaker-interrupting devices
are a team; both are necessary for the quick isolation of a trouble
area or damaged equipment.
A protective relay without a circuit breaker has no basic value except possibly
for alarm. Similarly, a circuit breaker without relays has minimum value, that
being for manually energizing or de-energizing a circuit or equipment.

Primary objective of all power systems is to maintain a very high level of

continuity of service, and when intolerable conditions occur, time of outage should
be minimum.

Loss of power, voltage dips(rise and fall), and over voltages will occur
,however
,because it is impossible as well as impractical to avoid the consequences of
natural events, Physical accidents, equipment failure, or human error. Many of
these result in faults: unintentional, accidental connections, and flashovers b/w the
phase wires or from the phase wires to ground.
It is important to take timely decisions in a power system’s protection
because time margin is very narrow, and when faults occur, a recheck
for verification or a decision-making procedure that involves additional
time, is not desirable.it is vital:

1. A correct decision be made by the protective device, as the trouble is

intolerable and thus demands quick action, or whether it is a
tolerable or transient situation that the system can absorb.
2. If necessary, the protective device operates to isolate the trouble area
quickly and with a minimum of system disturbance. This trouble
time may be, and often is associated with high irrelevant “noise”
which must not “fool” the device or cause incorrect operation.
 The protective relays act only after an abnormal or intolerable
condition has occurred, with sufficient indication to permit their
operation. Thus protection does not mean prevention , but rather,
minimizing the duration of the trouble and limiting the damage,
outage time, and related problems that may result if not.
Classification of Protective Relays

According to construction and technology, relays can be classified as;

1. Electromagnetic Relays pre 1970s

(Electromechanical Relays)
2. Static Relays 1970s
3. Microprocessor Based Relays 1980s
to date
(Numerical Relays)
 Evolution of Relays:
Electromechanical Relays

Solid State Relays

Digital relay

Numerical Relays
Electromechanical Relays

• Attracted armature relay

• Induction disc type relay
• Balanced beam relay
• Moving coil relay
• Permanent magnet Assignmnet-01(a)

• Polarized moving iron

Electromechanical relays have been used for years and
have established a reputation for simplicity, reliability,
security, low maintenance, and long life.
Devices of these types were in common use by 1930s
and cost a few hundred dollars.
However, in recent years, solid-state relays are being
used advantageously in some applications.
Some of the advantages are lower burden, improved
dynamic performance characteristics, high seismic-
withstand capability, and reduced panel space.
Many of the protection functions can be accomplished
equally well by either electromechanical or solid-state
relays. The specific application should dictate which type
of relay is used.
Electromechanical relays
Electromechanical relays have only two different operating
principles:

(1) electromagnetic attraction and

(2) electromagnetic induction.

Electromagnetic-attraction relays operate by having either a
plunger drawn by a solenoid or an armature drawn to a pole of an
electromagnet. This type of relay will operate from either an ac or
a dc current or voltage source and is used for instantaneous or
high-speed trips.
Electromagnetic-induction relays (disk or cup type) use the
principle of induction motor, where torque is developed by
induction into a rotor. This principle is used in a watt-hour meter,
where the rotor is a disk.
The actuating force developed on the rotor is a result of the
interaction of the electromagnetic fluxes applied and the flux
produced by eddy currents that are induced in the rotor.
 Induction type relays can only be used in ac applications.
Time overcurrent and time under/overvoltage relays commonly
are of the disk design, while cup (cylinder) structures are often
found in high-speed overcurrent, directional relays, differential
relays, and distance relays.
Electromagnetic attraction type relays:
Induction type relays:
Solid State relays
The relays which do not use moving parts and use solid state
electronic components such as diodes, transistors etc. are called
static relays.
The circuits such as comparators, level detectors, zero crossing
detectors etc. are used in static relays for measurement and
comparison of electrical quantities.
The static relay is designed in such a way that whenever a
quantity under consideration exceeds a particular level, the static
circuit produces a response without any moving parts.
This response is then manipulated and given to a tripping circuit
which may be electronic or electromagnetic.

Basic Elements of a Static Relay

The Fig. shows block diagram of a static relay indicating basic
elements.
Input Element
The relaying quantity can be the output of C.T. or P.T. or it may
be the output of a transducer or combination of various signals.
Thus an electronic circuit such as rectifier is required as an input
element to get the input signal in a convenient form before
applying it to a measuring element. Some mixing circuits such as
op-amp adder may also be required as an input element.
Measuring Element
This is the heart of static relay. It compares, the output of an
input element with a set value and decides the signal to be applied
to output element which ultimately drives the tripping circuit.
Thus measuring element is a deciding signal generator. Measuring
element can be a; Single input, Two input or Multi-input device.

Output Element
The signals obtained from measuring element are required to be
amplified before applying to the tripping circuit.
Thus output element is an amplifier. Sometimes this element not
only amplifies the signals but multiplies them or combines them
with other signals to delay them.

Feed Element
The measuring element uses electronic circuits consisting
transistors, diodes etc. The output element uses transistor as an
amplifier. All these components along with the tripping circuit
require dc supply for proper functioning. The feed element
provides the dc voltage required by various elements.
Applications of Solid state Relays:
SSR has gained favor in various regions that was earlier the domain of
electromechanical relay or contactor. These are increasingly used in
transformers, lamps, temperature control, solenoids, motors and
valves etc. Few applications include the following:
1. Industrial automation, lighting and appliances
2. Packaging and tooling machines 
3. Electronic appliances
4. Manufacturing equipment
5. Test and security systems
6. Instrumentation system
7. Production equipment
8. On-board power control
9. Traffic control
10.Elevator control etc
Advantages of Static Relays:
1. The moving parts are absent in the control circuit.
2. The burden on current transformers gets considerably reduced
thus smaller C.Ts can be used.
3. The power consumption is very low as most of the circuits are
electronic.
4. The response is very quick.
5. As moving parts are absent, the minimum maintenance is
required. No bearing friction or contact troubles exist.
6. The resetting time can be reduced and overshoots can be reduced
due to absence of mechanical inertia and thermal storage.
7. The sensitivity is high as signal amplification can be achieved
very easily.
8. The
use of printed circuits eliminates the wiring errors and mass
production is possible.
9. As electronic circuits can be used to perform number of
functions, the wide range of operating characteristics can be
obtained, which almost approach to ideal requirements.
10. The low energy levels required in the measuring circuits make
the relays smaller and compact in size.
11. The testing and servicing is simplified.
Limitations of Static Relays
With various advantages, the static relays also have the following
limitations,
1. The characteristics of electronic components such as transistors,
diodes etc. are temperature dependent. Hence relay characteristics
vary with temperature and ageing.
2. The reliability is unpredictable as it depends on a large number of
small components and their electrical connections.
3. These relays have low short time overload capacity compared to
electromagnetic relays.
4. Additional dc supply is required for various transistor circuits.
5. Susceptible to the voltage fluctuations and transients.
6. Less mechanically robust compared to electromagnetic relays.
Digital Relay
• The world's first commercially available digital protective relay was introduced to
the power industry in 1984.
• A microprocessor-based digital protection relay can replace the functions of many
discrete electromechanical instruments. These relays convert voltage and currents
to digital form and process the resulting measurements using a microprocessor. 
• The digital relay can emulate functions of many discrete electromechanical relays
in one device, simplifying protection design and maintenance.
• Each digital relay can run self-test routines to confirm its readiness and alarm if a
fault is detected. Digital relays can also provide functions such as communications
interface, monitoring of contact inputs, metering, waveform analysis, and other
useful features.
• Digital relays can, for example, store multiple sets of protection parameters, which
allows the behavior of the relay to be changed during maintenance of attached
equipment.
Numerical Relays
Protective relays have undergone wonderful evolution over the
years. The microprocessor that was invented around 1971,
revolutionized the electronics scene in its entirety and the
development of a microprocessor-based relay followed soon
thereafter.
Other popular nomenclatures for such relays are digital relay,
computer-based relay or numerical relay. In numerical relays, there
is an additional entity, the software, which runs in the background
and which actually runs the relay.
With the advent of numerical relays, the emphasis has shifted
from hardware to software. Hardware is more or less the same
between any two numerical relays. What distinguishes one
numerical relay
from the other is the software.
So, The modern numerical relay
has evolved from a torque
balancing device to a programm-
-able information processor.
Block Diagram of a Numerical Relay
The signals from the CTs and PTs cannot be sampled without
anti-aliasing filter (a low-pass filter) and converted to the digital
form. This is to make sure that the signal does not contain
frequency components having a frequency greater than one half of
the sampling frequency.
Next, the analogue signal is sampled and held constant during
the time the value is converted to digital form.
The sampled and held value is passed on to the ADC through a
multiplexer so as to accommodate a large number of input signals.
The sample and hold circuit and the ADC work under the
control of the microprocessor and communicate with it with the
help of control signals such as the “end-of conversion signal”
issued by the ADC.
The ADC passes on the digital representation of the
instantaneous value of the signal to the microprocessor via an
input port.
The output of the ADC may be 4, 8, 12, 16, or 32 bits wide or
even wider. The wider the output of the ADC, the greater its
resolution.
The incoming digital values from ADC are stored in RAM of
the microprocessor and processed by the relay software in
accordance with an underlying relaying algorithm.
The microprocessor issues the trip signal on one of the bits of
its output port which is then suitably processed so as to make it
compatible with the trip coil of the CB.
The relaying program or the relay software, which resides in
the EPROM, can only be upgraded or modified by authorized
personnel. Thus, new features and functionalities can be added to
an existing relay by upgrading its software.
Directional type relays:

Relays based on Timing

Distance type relays:
Differential type relays:
Other type of relays:
Relay Contact Types.
The standard descriptions of normally open, (NO) and normally closed, (NC) used to
describe how the relays contacts are connected, relay contact arrangements can also be
classed by their actions. Electrical relays can be made up of one or more individual
switch contacts with each "contact" being referred to as a "pole". Each one of these
contacts or poles can be connected or "thrown" together by energizing the relays coil
and this gives rise to the description of the contact types as being:
SPST - Single Pole Single Throw
      SPDT - Single Pole Double Throw
      DPST - Double Pole Single Throw
      DPDT - Double Pole Double Throw

With the action of the contacts being described as "make" (M) or "break" (B). Then a
simple relay with one set of contacts as shown above can have a contact description of:

   "Single Pole Double Throw - (Break before Make)", or SPDT - (B-M).

Examples of just some of the more common contact types for relays in circuit or
schematic diagrams is given, but there are many more possible configurations.
 Relay Contact Configurations

Where:
     C is the Common terminal
    NO is the Normally Open contact
    NC is the Normally Closed contact
USEFULL CONVERSIONS:
 Components of a Typical
Protection System…….
Protective Relays

Current and Voltage Transformers

Circuit Breakers

Fuses
Fundamental Requirements for a Protection relaying

 Selectivity
 Speed
 Sensitivity
 Reliability
 Simplicity
 Economy
The protection system must have:
Reliability : Assurance that the protection will perform correctly.

Stability : No action on healthy circuits.

Sensitivity : Minimal changes in measured parameter that the system can react to.

Selectivity : Maximum continuity of service with minimum system. disconnection.

Speed : Minimum fault duration and consequent equipment damage and system
instability.

Economy: The most important factor in the choice of a particular protection scheme is the
economic aspect.
  SELECTIVITY

Only the effected parts of the power system shall be disconnected. This quality of
protective relay is called discrimination. Protection system must discriminate
between healthy and faulty sections of power system.

This can be achieved by two main methods:

1. Time-grading/Current Grading:

 Relays are set to operate depending on the time and current characteristics.

2. Unit systems

 Current is measured at several points and compared

 SENSITIVITY

 The protective relay should operate when the magnitude of the current exceeds
the preset value. This value is called pick – up current. Relay should operate
when current value just exceed its pick – up value.

 For electromagnetic relays, this was a main design characteristic.

 Presently, the sensitivity is determined by the CT/VT and design of the system

 STABILITY

 The protection system shall not react to non-fault situations.

 The protection system must not react to faults in neighboring zones or high load
currents.
  RELIABILITY

The protection system must provide its function when required to avoid damage
to equipment, people or property.

 Reliability problems stem from

– Incorrect design
– Incorrect installation/testing
– Deterioration

 The study of the reliability of a protection system is critical.

 A typical value of reliability of a protective scheme is 95%.

  SPEED

Faults must be isolated as fast as possible.

 Speed is necessary for two main reasons:

1. Maintain stability of the overall power system

2. Reduction of damage to equipment & property

Economy

The most important factor in the choice of a particular protection scheme is the
economic aspect. Sometimes it is economically unjustified to use an ideal scheme of
protection and a compromise method has to be adopted. As a rule, the protective
gear should not cost more than 5% of total cost. However, when the apparatus to be
protected is of utmost importance (e.g. generator, main transmission line etc.),
economic considerations are often subordinated to reliability.
Reliability. It is the ability of the relay system to operate under the
pre-determined conditions. Without reliability, the protection would
be rendered largely ineffective and could even be-come a liability.
Simplicity. The relaying system should be simple so that it can be
easily maintained. Reliability is closely related to simplicity. The
simpler the protection scheme, the greater will be its reliability.
Economy. The most important factor in the choice of a particular
protection scheme is the economic aspect. Sometimes it is
economically unjustified to use an ideal scheme of protection and a
compromise method has to be adopted. As a rule, the protective
gear should not cost more than 5% of total cost. However, when the
apparatus to be protected is of utmost importance (e.g. generator,
main transmission line etc.), economic considerations are often
subordinated to reliability.
H.W:

 Explain in detail the types of electromechanical relay?

 Discuss the applications of electromechanical relay, static
relay, digital relay and numerical relay?
Thank You