STRUCTURAL IDEALISATION

BY DR. MAHDI DAMGHANI

1
SUGGESTED READINGS

2
Chapters 19
of
Aircraft
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

3
This Lecture (Lecture 6):
 Familiarisation with the functions of various structural components in an aircraft;
 Familiarisation with simplifying complex wing structure into an idealised structure for stress
analysis purposes;

Next lecture (Lecture 7):

 Impact of idealisation on bending of beam cross section;
 Impact of idealisation on shear flow and its distribution within the beam cross section;
 Impact of idealisation on torsion of beam cross section;
NOTE TO THE STUDENTS

4
 You are required to read the following paper before attending this lecture;
 Note that this document is uploaded on blackboard;

Odeh Dababneh, Altan Kayran, (2014) "Design, analysis and optimization of thin walled semi-
monocoque wing structures using different structural idealization in the preliminary design
phase", International Journal of Structural Integrity, Vol. 5 Issue: 3, pp.214-226,
https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSI-12-2013-0050
OVERVIEW

5
LIFT LOADS

6
 Lift is generated by producing a higher pressure below the wing than above
it.
 Higher speed airflow above wing than below (streamlines closer together).
Lift

• Streamlines around an aerofoil. • Resultant lift force (red arrow) acts

(Above) through
• Pressure Distribution around an centre of pressure (cop), normal to stream
aerofoil. (Below) • cop varies with α (angle of attack)
• Pitching Moment caused by unequal pressure
distribution around aerofoil.
 WING STRUCTURE

7
 The Wing Digital Mock-Up of a Wing-Box
 Wingbox (Upper Cover removed)
 Primary wing structure
 Leading edge
 Fixed Leading Edge
 Slats
 Droop Nose
 Pylon (Engine) Attachments
 Trailing Edge
 Fixed Trailing Edge
 Spoilers
 Ailerons
 Flaps
 Wing Landing Gear
Attachments Digital Mock-Up of the A350
 Wingtip and Fairings Wing
 8
WATC
H
WING-BOX

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 Carries the main
structural loads from
the wing;
 Aerodynamic, inertial,
movables, fuel; A380 Wingbox
 Closed-cell structure in
Production
allowing resistance to
shear, torsion and
tension loads;
 Location of fuel
tanks; Wing in
 Supports the landing Plan View
A380 Wingbox in
gear and engines, if Production
they are wing mounted.
WING LOADS

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 Wing Finite Element Model provides
Shear , Moment and Torsion
 WING COMPLEXITY (SPARS)

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Digital Mock-Up of Wingbox
(Upper Cover removed)
 Span-wise members that Exploded View of a generic Wing Spars
Track Can
carry shear loads;
Cut-Outs
 Fuel Tank Boundary;

Rib Post

 Provide mounting for

WLG Fittings and Leading
and Trailing edge fittings.
WING COMPLEXITY (SPARS)

12
 For larger aircraft, the spars are usually made
up from multiple sections;
 Sections are normally joined together with joint
Spar
plates and straps.
Boom
Straps

Web Joint
Plate

Spar

Digital Mock-Up of Wingbox (Upper Cover removed)

LOAD CARRYING MECHANISM OF SPARS

13
WING COMPLEXITY (RIBS)

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Manhole
Castellation

Stringer

Stiffener/
Crack per
View inside the Wing Box onto Rib stop
looking Computer Rendering of Typical Large Rib
outboard
 Castellated edge allows the stringers to pass through rib feet to attached to the skin.
 Manholes allow access within the wingbox and movement of fuel.
 Stiffeners and crack stoppers are machined or bolted on to increase the strength of the overall
structure.
LOAD CARRYING MECHANISM OF RIBS

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 WING COMPLEXITY (SKINS AND STRINGERS)

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Skin Skin
Panel Panel
 The Stringer
skin may
assembled
be from multiple
panels. Joints between
skin panels are made at
stringer locations and
reinforced with Butt Butt
Straps. Strap
 Stringers prevent skin Digital Mock-Up of Lower Wing Skins with
Stringer being installed on an A340 Wing
buckling in compression Stringers
and aid with bending
strength in tension.  Stringers are riveted onto the skin or
 The Tension (Lower Cover) – Fatigue integrally
machined/formed onto the panel.
& Damage Tolerance  Access holes on the bottom skin allow entry into the
 Compression (Top Cover) - Strength wing-box for inspection of the internal structure and
cleaning of the fuel tanks.
LOAD CARRYING MECHANISM OF SKINS

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 ROOT JOINT

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 Where the wing attaches
to the centre wing box in
the fuselage;
 The cruciform and tri-form
fittings are used to attach
the upper and lower
covers respectively to the
centre wing box. Patent
application
number: 20110089292;
 Upper and lower joint
fittings are used to attach
the spars.
WING TIP

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Wing Tip Navigation
Fence Lights

Wing
Tip
A320 Wing tip installed on end of Wing Illustration of Wing Tip Structure
at Broughton
 Rigid structure fixed to end of the wing-box;
 The structure is built in a similar way to the wing-box, with spars, ribs, stringers and skin
forming the structure;
 Contains the navigation and strobe lights.
WINGTIP (WINGLET & WING FENCE)

20
Illustration of vortices
Wing Tip with blended Winglet installed
created at the Wing
 A winglet or wing fence can be added Blended Tip
Winglet
to the end of the wingtip to reduce the
induced drag effect of the wing;
 A winglet generates more load than a
wing fence but design of the wing and
wingtip considers these extra forces;
 “Sharklet” is Airbus’s trade name for
the winglets being added to the A320
family.
 21
SLAT
S Slats
 Extend out from the leading edge to increase lift and
allow the wing to be flown at a higher angle of attack
(i.e. slower speeds);
 Extended by a rack and pinion arrangement.
Protection exists to avoid inadvertent asymmetric
deployment of slats; Aircraft Wing with Slats deployed

 Supported by slat tracks which run along a set

of rollers carrying the vertical and side loads;
 Slat Cans house the slat tracks when retracted and
act as a fuel boundary;

Cross-Sectional diagram of Slat arrangement

 22
FLAPS
 Extend to increase the
effective wing area and
camber;
 This increases wing lift
and also increases drag to Flaps
enable a steeper descent
when landing without the
increase in airspeed.
View of wing with flaps and spoilers fully deployed

Diagram of Flap in un-deployed and deployed states

AILERONS

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Static discharger
 Controls the roll rate of
Aileron
the aircraft, but may
also be used for Load
Alleviation Function in
conjunction with the
spoilers;
 Larger aircraft may have
more than one aileron
on each wing;
 Attached onto trailing
Exploded view of Aileron composite structure
edge ribs aft of the rear
spar; View on underside of wing, looking up

 Mass weights are

usually added forward of
the hinge line to reduce
flutter.
WING STRUCTURE CATEGORISATION

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 Category A;  Category B;
Structure identified as Principal Structural Elements (PSE). Structures whose failure or detachment could indirectly
These are the elements that contribute significantly to carrying compromise continued safe flight or landing by an adverse effect
flight, ground or pressurisation loads and whose failure could on a Category A structure.
result in catastrophic failure of the aircraft.(Ref. ACJ 25.571(a) 2.2; These structures must be replaced or repaired on the discovery of
AC 25.571-1C 6d.) any damage unless specific rational is provided.
These structures must be replaced or repaired on the discovery of
any damage unless specific rational is provided.

 Category C;  Category D;
Structures whose failure or detachment will not compromise Structures whose failure or detachment has no airworthiness
continued safe flight or landing but where the potentially large size consequence but only has an economic impact.
of released elements needs to be considered. These structures may have to be replaced or repaired
As these structures are not identified as either category A or B, on discovery of failure if they form part of the aircraft external
any failure or departure from the aircraft must be demonstrated as envelop.
not preventing continued safe flight and landing and the probability
of occurrence is acceptably low (Ref. ACJ 25C- 571 (a)2.1.1e.).
No detachment of structure is allowed (Ref. NPA 25C-290).
These structures must be replaced or repaired on discovery of
element failure at an appropriate time.
WATC

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H
WHAT IS THE POINT?

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 So far, we have been dealing with simple
structural components such as plates and
beams;
 Real life structures are complex and in order
to analyse them simplification must be
made;
 The behaviour of the simplified/idealised
structure must be as close as that of the real
structure;
 Stresses/strains obtained from the idealised Sheet-stringer
Actual cross-section idealisation of the
structure are representative of the real of a thin-walled beam
complex structure. same section
 We will further assume all
direct stresses are taken
by stringers and spar
IDEALISATION flanges. Skin takes all the

27
shear

The variation of stress

(due to bending) over the
cross section is small RReepplal acceewwiitthh

Carrying direct and bbooommss

shear stresses (concentration of area) at
Stringers and spar flanges the midline of skin
have small cross-
sectional dimensions
compared to the
complete section

Carrying direct
stresses only
PANEL IDEALISATION

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 We would like to idealise the
panel into the following;
 Direct stress carrying booms
 Shear stress carrying skins

 All direct stresses are given

to booms;
 Note that the distribution
stress
of has disappeared in
idealised structure though;
 Aslong as we can get By putting the thickness as zero, i.e.
the extremes of stress, it is 𝐴 = 0, the direct stress carrying
fine; ability of skin vanishes (𝜎 = 𝑃 𝐴)
 What should be the area of
 29
PANEL IDEALISATION Direct stress carrying Actual thickness of
thickness of skin skin

 For idealisation; M1  M 2

2
M 1  2 t D b 2  1    M2
2 2 1 2 tDb b
3 B11b

Taking moment about Taking moment about

the orange line the orange line
NOTES

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WING IDEALISATION AS DONE IN INDUSTRY (GLOBAL FEM)

31
View from the top
 Skin is modelled as shell elements
 Stringers as bar elements
 Spar caps as bar elements

View from the bottom

GFEM OF A SECTION THROUGH THE WING

32
Spar cap

Upper skin

Rib Lower skin

Stringer
 33
EXAMPLE

 Part of a wing section is in the form of the

two-cell box shown in figure, in which the
vertical spars are connected to the wing
skin through angle sections, all having a
cross-sectional area of 300mm2. Idealise
the section into an arrangement of direct
stress-carrying booms and shear-stress-
only-carrying panels suitable for resisting
bending moments in a vertical plane.
Position the booms at the spar/skin
junctions.
 The idealised structure with booms modelled as

34
concentration of area located at the mid-plane of skins
SOLUTION

What are the cross section areas?

From symmetry we know 𝐵1 = 𝐵6, 𝐵2 = 𝐵5, 𝐵3 = 𝐵4

Note that 𝜎6 𝜎1 = −1. When 1 is in tension 6 will be in

equal compression and vice versa due to bending
 The idealised structure with booms modelled as

35
concentration of area located at the mid-plane of skins
SOLUTION

𝑦1 𝑦2 𝑦 5 𝑦2 𝑦 3 𝑦2
What are the cross section areas?
From symmetry we know 𝐵1 = 𝐵6, 𝐵2 = 𝐵5, 𝐵3 = 𝐵4
 The idealised structure with booms modelled as

36
concentration of area located at the mid-plane of skins
SOLUTION

What are the cross section areas?

From symmetry we know 𝐵1 = 𝐵6, 𝐵2 = 𝐵5, 𝐵3 = 𝐵4
FEA OF ORIGINAL SECTION

37
Load applied Von Mises
at shear centre stresses

7 ribs equally
spaced
SECOND MOMENT OF AREA FOR IDEALISED SECTIONS

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 We have n booms with areas B1, B2, … Bn the second moment of areas are;

 The next two examples demonstrate this.

EXAMPLE

39
 Construct an idealised cross-section by evaluating the boom areas at points A, B, C, D, E and
F. Use the method based on the equilibrium of bending stresses. Moreover, calculate the
second moment of area of the idealised section.
SOLUTION

40
The area of the booms for F=A, E=B and D=C based
on symmetry.
SOLUTION

41
BA BB

BC

BD

BF BE
 42
EXAMPLE

 Construct the idealised section for the following airfoil. It can be assumed that stringers are
spaced at 50 mm interval and 45o in the straight and curved section, respectively. It can be
further assumed that the only loading is Mx. Obtain centroidal location and second moment of
areas for the idealised section. Calculate direct stress in the booms under bending moment of
500,000 N.mm. All dimensions are in millimetres.

x
 43
SOLUTION (BOOM CROSS SECTION AREAS)

2 3 y 4 5 6
1

12
11 10 9 8 7

50 100
B6  B7 
1.6
 2
1.6
 2 1  2

6
6 1
66.67mm
50 1.6 50 1.6
B3  B4  B5  B8  B9  B10  6 2 1  6 2 1  80mm2
SOLUTION (BOOM CROSS SECTION AREAS)

44
 The vertical distance between boom 1 and
2 (blue arrow in opposite figure) is as 2 3 y 4 5 6
below; 1
2
y2  y1  50  50 2  14.65mm x

 The length of chord from boom 1 to boom

12
2 is a quarter of circumference of the semi 11 10 9 8 7
circle;
b12  0.25R  12.5
 Therefore, we have;
 50 2 
50 
B2  B11  2 12.5 2 
1.6  2 2   75.44mm

2
6 6 50
1  
 
SOLUTION (BOOM CROSS SECTION AREAS)

45
 The length of chord from boom 1 to boom 12
is half of the circumference of semi circle as 2 3 y 4 5 6
below; 1

b112  0.5R  25 x

12
11 10 9 8 7
 Therefore, we have;
 

25 2  50
B1  B12  2 12.5 2    70.87mm2
6 6 2 
1  50 2 
 2

SOLUTION (SECOND MOMENT OF AREAS)

46
 Centroidal location can be found by taking 2 3 y 4 5 6
the moment of concentrated areas about 6-7 and 1
11-7:
B  0  B5  50  B4 100  B3 150  B2  200  B1  x
x 6 B 6  B 5  B 4  B 3  B 2  B1
235.35
x  123.11mm 12
11 10 9 8 7
y  50mm

 Second moment of areas can be readily calculated

as below:

I  2 66.67  502  380  502   75.44  502  70.87  35.352  

2087671mm 4
I xxyy  2 66.67 123.11  380  73.11   75.44  76.89  70.87 112.24  
7264173mm 2 2 2
2 4 Ixy  0
SOLUTION (DIRECT STRESSES)

47
2 3 y 4 5 6
 Normal stress can be calculated as;
1
M xx y
M yy  0, Ixy  0  z  I xx x
 At booms 2-6, we have;

500, 000  50 12
 z 208767.1  11.9MPa
 At booms 7-11, we have; 11 10 9 8 7

500, 00050
 z 208767.1  11.9MPa
 At booms 1, we have;

500, 000  35.35

 z 208767.1  8.46MPa
 At boom 12, we have;

500, 00035.35
 z 208767.1  8.46MPa
SOLUTION (FEA-DISPLACEMENTS)

48
 In the FEM, an upward 1,000N force is applied at the tip at
the location of the shear centre.
 By plotting the displacement
contours in the vertical
direction, i.e. U2, it can be
confirmed that at each section
the vertical displacements
are almost equal suggesting
that the load is applied at the
shear centre with no twist of
the section.
SOLUTION (FEA-DIRECT STRESSES)

49
 At a section 500mm from the tip,
the direct stresses are plotted in
the opposite figure.
 The direct stress on the upper skin
is
-12.13MPa whereas for the
bottom
skin it reads as +12.13MPa.
 This value is 1.2% more than
hand calculation for the idealised
section.
SOLUTION (FEA-SHEAR FLOW)

50
Point with zero
 Let’s look at shear flow distribution, i.e. shear flow
SF3, in the section.
 The shear flow is as the result of shear
force only as the force was applied at the
shear centre meaning no twist of the
section, hence no shear stresses due to
twist.
 Pay attention to the location of zero shear
flow and linear distribution of shear flow
in flanges and quadratic in the webs.

Linear shear Quadratic shear

flow distribution flow
distribution
TUTORIAL 1

51
 Idealise the box section into an arrangement of direct stress-carrying booms positioned at
the four corners and panels which are assumed to carry only shear stresses. Find the
centroid location of the idealised section and then calculate second moment of area for the
idealised section about x and y axis.
 52
SOLUTION
1 2

300 mm
4 3

500 mm

B1  60 10  40 10 
500 10
2 1 300 10
2 B  4000mm2  B
1
6 6
1
4

B2  50  8  32  8 
500 10
 2 1
300  8
 2 B  3556mm2  B
2
6 6
1
3
 53
SOLUTION
 To obtain the second moment of area, it is 1 2
essential to find the neutral axis location;

300 mm
 Taking moment about bottom skin, line
43;
4 4

y  B i   B i yi 
i1 i1
4 3
4000  300  3556  300
y 2 4000  
500 mm
 Taking
150mmmoment 4

3556 about spar 14;
4

x  B i   B i xi 
i1 i1

2  3556  500
x  235.3mm
2 4000 
SOLUTION

54
1 y 2

300 mm
I xx  2  4000 1502  2  3556 1502  340,020,000 4 x
mm 234.75

150
I yy  2  4000  235.32  2  3556  500 
4 3
235.3
 
2
941,238,752.08 mm4
500 mm
I xy   235.3 150 4000  235.31504000
 500  235.3 150 3556 500  235.3150 No need to calculate
as it is singly
3556 symmetric
0