NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING

NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING

 Nondestructive testing or Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a

wide group of analysis techniques used in science and industry
to evaluate the properties of a material, component or system
without causing damage.[1] The terms Nondestructive
examination (NDE),Nondestructive inspection (NDI),
and Nondestructive evaluation (NDE) are also commonly used
to describe this technology.[2] Because NDT does not
permanently alter the article being inspected, it is a highly-
valuable technique that can save both money and time in
product evaluation, troubleshooting, and research. Common
NDT methods include ultrasonic, magnetic-particle, liquid
penetrant, radiographic, remote visual inspection (RVI
 
ULTRASONIC TESTING
 In ultrasonic testing (UT), very short ultrasonic pulse-
waves with center frequencies ranging from 0.1-
15 MHz and occasionally up to 50 MHz are launched
into materials to detect internal flaws or to
characterize materials. The technique is also
commonly used to determine the thickness of the test
object, for example, to monitor pipework corrosion.
 Ultrasonic testing is often performed on steel and
other metals and alloys, though it can also be used on
concrete, wood and composites, albeit with less
resolution. It is a form of non-destructive testing used
in many industries including aerospace, automotive
 and other transportation sectors.
 MAGNETIC-PARTICLE INSPECTION
 Magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a 
non-destructive testing (NDT) process for detecting
surface and subsurface discontinuities in
ferroelectric materials such as iron, nickel, cobalt, and
some of their alloys. The process puts a magnetic field
into the part. The piece can be magnetized by direct or
indirect magnetization. Direct magnetization occurs
when the electric current is passed through the test
object and a magnetic field is formed in the material.
Indirect magnetization occurs when no electric current
is passed through the test object, but a magnetic field
is applied from an outside source. The magnetic lines of
force are perpendicular to the direction of the electric
current which may be either alternating current (AC) or
some form of direct current (DC) (rectified AC).
 The presence of a surface or subsurface
discontinuity in the material allows the 
magnetic flux to leak. Ferrous iron
particles are applied to the part. The
particles may be dry or in a wet
suspension. If an area of flux leakage is
present the particles will be attracted to
this area. The particles will build up at
the area of leakage and form what is
known as an indication. The indication
can then be evaluated to determine what
it is, what may have caused it, and what
action should be taken, if any.
 DYE PENETRANT INSPECTION
 Dye penetrant inspection (DPI), also called liquid
penetrant inspection (LPI) or penetrant
testing (PT), is a widely applied and low-cost
inspection method used to locate surface-breaking
defects in all non-porous materials (metals,
plastics, or ceramics). The penetrant may be
applied to all non-ferrous materials and ferrous
materials, although for ferrous components 
magnetic-particle inspection is often used instead
for its subsurface detection capability. LPI is used
to detect casting, forging and welding surface
defects such as hairline cracks, surface porosity,
leaks in new products, and fatigue cracks on in-
service components.
RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING
 Radiographic Testing (RT), or 
 
industrial radiography, is a 
nondestructive testing (NDT) method of
inspecting materials for hidden flaws by using
the ability of short wavelength 
electromagnetic radiation (high energy photons)
to penetrate various materials.
 Either an X-ray machine or a radioactive source (
Ir-192, Co-60, or in rare cases Cs-137) can be
used as a source of photons. 
Neutron radiographic testing (NR) is a variant of
radiographic testing which
 uses neutrons instead of photons to
penetrate materials. This can see very
different things from X-rays, because
neutrons can pass with ease through lead
and steel but are stopped by plastics, water
and oils.
 Since the amount of radiation emerging from
the opposite side of the material can be
detected and measured, variations in this
amount (or intensity) of radiation are used
to determine thickness or composition of
material. Penetrating radiations are those
restricted to that part of the
electromagnetic spectrum of wavelength
less than about 10 nanometres.
EDDY-CURRENT TESTING
 Eddy-current testing uses 
electromagnetic induction to detect flaws in 
conductive materials. There are several
limitations, among them: only conductive
materials can be tested, the surface of the
material must be accessible, the finish of the
material may cause bad readings, the depth
of penetration into the material is limited by
the materials' conductivity, and flaws that lie
parallel to the probe may be undetectable.
 In a standard eddy current testing a circular coil
carrying current is placed in proximity to the test
specimen (which must be electrically
conductive).The alternating current in the coil
generates changing magnetic field which interacts
with test specimen and generates eddy
current.Variations in the phase and magnitude of
these eddy currents can be monitored using a
second 'receiver' coil, or by measuring changes to
the current flowing in the primary 'excitation' coil.
Variations in the electrical conductivity or magnetic
permeability of the test object, or the presence of
any flaws, will cause a change in eddy current and
a corresponding change in the phase and amplitude
of the measured current. This is the basis of
standard (flat coil) eddy current inspection, the
most widely used eddy current technique.
 However, eddy-current testing can detect
very small cracks in or near the surface of
the material, the surfaces need minimal
preparation, and physically complex
geometries can be investigated. It is also
useful for making electrical conductivity
and coating thickness measurements.
 The testing devices are portable, provide
immediate feedback, and do not need to
contact the item in question. Recently
tomographic notion of ECT has been
explored see for example:
 
 OPTICAL INTERFEROMETRY
 Optical interferometry combines two or more light
waves in an optical instrument in such a way that 
interference occurs between them.
 Early interferometers used white light sources and also
monochromatic light from atomic sources (e.g., 
Young's double slit experiment of 1805) . Such
interferometers had a wide range of applications, for
example, calibration of slip gauges and measurement of
gas flow.[1] In 1960, when the definition of the meter
 was based on one of the spectral line emitted by
krypton-86, interferometry was essential in setting up
the standard. The development of lasers has made it
much easier to produce optical interference and has led
to the development of a wide range of measurement
methods in engineering, physics and other fields.