HUMANS AND

ECOSYSTEM
LESSON 1
INTRODUCTION

Every one of us is sustained by various kinds of natural resources – such as food,

materials, and energy that are harvested or otherwise extracted from the
environment. Our need for those resources is absolute – we cannot survive
without them. Moreover, the same is true of all other species – every organism is
a component of an ecosystem that provides the means of subsistence.
Collectively, the needs and activities of people comprise a human economy. That
economy operates at various scales, ranging from an individual person, to a
family, to communities such as towns and cities, nation-states (such as Canada),
and ultimately the global human enterprise. While an enormous (and rapidly
growing) number of people are supported by the global economy, a lot of
environmental damage is also being caused. The most important of the damages
are the depletion of vital natural resources, various kinds of pollution (including
climate change), and widespread destruction of natural habitats to the extent that
the survival of many of the natural ecosystems and species of Earth are at grave
risk.
Issues related to environmental problems are extremely diverse and they
interact in myriad ways. Despite this complexity, environmental issues
can be studied by aggregating them into three broad categories:

1. the causes and consequences of the rapidly increasing human population

2. the use and depletion of natural resources
3. damage caused by pollution and disturbances, including the endangerment
of biodiversity
These are extremely big issues – their sustainable resolution poses great
challenges to people and their economy at all scales. Nevertheless, it is
important to understand that the study of environmental issues should not be
regarded as being a gloomy task of understanding awful problems – rather,
the major goal is to identify problems and find practical ways to repair them
and prevent others from occurring. These are worthwhile and necessary
actions that represent real progress towards an ecologically sustainable
economy. As such, people who understand and work towards the resolution
of environmental problems can achieve high levels of satisfaction with their
contribution, which is something that helps to make life worth living.
 Typical questions that might be examined in environmental
science include the following:
1. How large is the human population likely to be in Canada, or on Earth, in 50 or 200 years?
2. How can the use of fossil fuels be integrated into a sustainable economy, in view of the fact that they are non-renewable
resources that do not regenerate?
3. How can we harvest renewable resources (which do have the potential to regenerate) in ways that do not degrade their
stocks, such as cod in Atlantic Canada, wild salmon in British Columbia, wheat and other grains in the Prairie provinces,
and forest resources across much of the country?
4. What ecological damages are caused by various kinds of pollution, such as acid rain, ozone, pesticides, and sulphur
dioxide, and how can these effects be prevented or repaired?
5. Are human influences affecting global climate, and if so, what are the causes and consequences of this effect?
6. Where and how quickly are species and natural habitats becoming endangered or extinct, and how can these calamities be
prevented?
Of all of the academic disciplines, ecology is the most relevant to
environmental science, and in fact the terms are often confused. Ecology
may be defined simply as the study of the relationships of organisms with
their environment. Ecology is itself a highly interdisciplinary field of study
– it mostly involves biology, but knowledge of chemistry, computer science,
mathematics, physics, geology, and other fields is also important.
Geography is another interdisciplinary field that is central to environmental
science. Geography can be simply defined as the study of natural features of
Earth’s surface, including climate, soil, topography, and vegetation, as well
as intersections with the human economy. Obviously, ecology and
geography are closely related fields.
 Increasing numbers of scientists are studying human (or anthropogenic)
influences on ecosystems, occurring as a result of pollution, disturbances, and
other stressors. Examples of the major subject areas are:

1. The extraction, processing, and use of non-renewable resources, such as fossil fuels and metals, in ways that do not cause
unacceptable environmental damage, while also moderating their depletion to some possible degree (for example, by re-
cycling certain materials)
2. The harvesting and management of biological resources, such as those in agriculture, fisheries, and forestry, in ways that
allow them to fully regenerate so their stocks can be sustained into the future
3. The growth of renewable sources of energy, such as the various forms of solar energy (including biomass fuels,
hydroelectricity, photovoltaics, and wind), as a way of replacing non-renewable fossil fuels and thereby making the
energy economy more sustainable
4. The prevention and repair of ecological damages, such as those related to endangered biodiversity, degraded land or
water, and the management of greenhouse gases
An environmental scientist is a generalist who uses science-related knowledge
relevant to environmental quality, such as air or water chemistry, climate
modelling, or the ecological effects of pollution.

Another group of people, known as environmentalists, is also involved with these

sorts of issues, especially in the sense of advocacy. This involves taking a strong
public stance on a particular environmental issue, in terms of the need to address
the problem.
 Earth, Life, and Ecosystems

The universe consists of billions of billions of stars and probably an even larger number of associated planets. Our Earth is one
particular planet, located within a seemingly ordinary solar system, which consists of the Sun, eight planets, three “dwarf”
planets, and additional orbiting bodies, such as asteroids and comets.

Earth is the third closest planet to the sun, orbiting that medium-sized star every 365 days at an average distance of 149 million
kilometres, and revolving on its own axis every 24 hours. Earth is a spherical body with a diameter of 12,700 kilometres.
About 70% of its surface is covered with liquid water, and the remaining terrestrial area of exposed land and rock is covered
mostly with vegetation. With so much of its surface covered with water, one might wonder why our planet was not named
“Water” instead of “Earth.”

The most singularly exceptional characteristic of Earth is the fact that certain qualities of its environment have led to the
genesis and subsequent evolution of organisms and ecosystems. These favourable environmental factors include aspects of
Earth’s chemistry, surface temperature, and strength of gravity.
The beginning of life occurred about 3.5 billion years ago, only 1 billion years following the origin
of Earth during the formation of the solar system. It is not exactly known how life first evolved
from inanimate matter, although it is believed to have been a spontaneous event. On other words,
the genesis of life happened naturally, as a direct result of appropriate physical and chemical
conditions.
Aside from the musings of science fiction, Earth is celebrated as the only place in the universe that
is known to sustain life and its associated ecological processes. Of course, this observation simply
reflects our present state of knowledge. We do not actually know that organisms do not exist
elsewhere – only that life or its signals have not yet been discovered anywhere else in the universe.
In fact, many scientists believe that because of the extraordinary diversity of environments that
must exist among the innumerable planets of the multitudinous solar systems of the universe, it is
likely that life forms have developed elsewhere. Nevertheless, the fact remains that Earth is the only
planet definitely known to support organisms and ecosystems. This makes Earth an extraordinarily
special place. We can consider the universe at various hierarchical levels. The scale ranges from the
extremely small, such as subatomic particles and photons, to the fantastically large, such as galaxies
and, ultimately, the universe.
Hierarchical Organization of the Universe.
 Life on Earth occupies intermediate levels of this hierarchy. The realm of
ecology encompasses the following levels:

1. individual organisms, which are living entities that are genetically and physically discrete
2. populations, or individuals of the same species that occur together in time and space
3. communities, or populations of various species, also co-occurring at the same time and place
4. landscapes and seascapes (collectively, these are ecoscapes), which are spatial integrations of various
communities over large areas
5. and the biosphere in its entirety, which is composed of all life and ecosystems on Earth
Species and Ecosystem

A species is defined as individuals and populations that can potentially interbreed

and produce fertile offspring. The word ecosystem is a generic term that is used
to describe one or more communities of organisms that are interacting with their
environment as a defined unit. As such, ecosystems can be organized in a
hierarchy – they may range from small units occurring in discrete microhabitats
(such as an aquatic ecosystem contained within a pitcher plant or in a garden
surrounded by pavement) to much larger scales (such as a landscape or
seascape). Even the biosphere can be viewed as being a single ecosystem.
Ecological interpretations of the natural world consider the web-like connections
among the many components of ecosystems in a holistic manner. This ecosystem
approach does not view the system as a random grouping of individuals, populations,
species, communities, and environments. Rather, it confirms all of these as being
intrinsically connected and mutually dependent, although in varying degrees, and also
as having emergent properties (In Detail 1.1).
An important ecological principle is that all species are sustained by environmental resources: the
“goods and services” that are provided by their ecosystem. All organisms require specific
necessities of life, such as inorganic nutrients, food, and habitat with particular biological and
physical qualities. Green plants, for example, need access to an adequate supply of moisture,
inorganic nutrients (such as nitrate and phosphate), sunlight, and space. Animals require suitable
foods of plant or animal biomass (organic matter), along with habitat requirements that differ for
each species.
It is important to understand that humans are no different in this respect from other species.
Although this dependence may not always seem to be immediately apparent as we live our
daily lives, we nevertheless depend on environmental resources such as food, energy, shelter,
and water to sustain ourselves and our larger economies.

It follows that the development and growth of individual people, their populations, and their
societies and cultures are limited to some degree by environmental factors. Examples of such
constraints include excessively cold or dry climatic conditions, mountainous or otherwise
inhospitable terrain, and other factors that influence food production by agriculture or
hunting.
However, humans are often able to favourably manipulate their environmental
circumstances. For example, crop productivity may be increased by irrigating
agricultural land, by applying fertilizer, or by managing pests. In fact, humans are
enormously more capable of overcoming their environmental constraints than
any other species. This ability is a distinguishing characteristic of our species.
The human species is labelled by the scientific term Homo sapiens, a two-word
name (or binomial) that is Latin for “wise man.” Indeed, humans are the most
intelligent of all the species, with an enormous cognitive ability (that is, an
aptitude for solving problems). When humans and their societies perceive an
environmental constraint, such as a scarcity of resources, they often have been
able to understand the limiting factors and to then use insight and tools to
manipulate the environment accordingly. The clever solutions have generally
involved management of the environment or other species to the benefit of
humans, or the development of social systems and technologies that allow a more
efficient exploitation of natural resources.
 Systems and Complexity

The concept of systems is important in the hierarchical organization of environmental science. For this
purpose, a system may be defined as a group or combination of regularly interacting and interdependent
elements that form a collective entity, but one that is more than the mere sum of its constituents. A system
can be isolated for purposes of study. Systems occur in various spheres of life, including the following: •
biosystems, which are represented by any of the levels of organization of life, ranging from biochemistry to
the biosphere • ecosystems, which are biosystems that consist of ecological communities that interact with
their environment as a defined unit • economic systems, or integrated activities that produce goods and
services in an economy • socio-cultural systems, which consist of ways that specialized people, information,
and technologies are organized to achieve some goal • and numerous others, including musical symphonies,
physical art such as paintings, and for that matter, the words and data in this book
 Stressors and Responses

The development and productivity of organisms, populations, communities, and ecosystems are
naturally constrained by environmental factors. These constraints can be viewed as being
environmental stressors (or stressors). For example, an individual plant may be stressed by
inadequate nutrition, perhaps because of infertile soil or competition with nearby plants for
scarce resources. Less-than-optimal access to nutrients, water, or sunlight results in
physiological stress, which causes the plant to be less productive than it is genetically capable
of being. One result of this stress–response relationship is that the plant may develop relatively
few seeds during its lifetime. Because reproductive (and evolutionary) success is related to the
number of progeny an organism produces to carry on its genetic lineage, the realized success of
this individual plant is less than its potential.
Similarly, the development and productivity of an animal (including any
human) are constrained by the environmental conditions under which it
lives. For instance, an individual may have to deal with stresses caused by
food shortage or by difficult interactions with other animals through
predation, parasitism, or competition for scarce resources.
The most benign (or least stressful) natural environments are characterized by conditions
in which factors such as moisture, nutrients, and temperature are not unduly
constraining, while disturbances associated with disease, wildfire, windstorm, or other
cataclysms are rare. These kinds of relatively benevolent conditions allow the most
complex and biodiverse ecosystems to develop, namely old-growth rainforest and coral
reefs. Other environments, however, are characterized by conditions that are more
stressful, which therefore limits their development to less complex ecosystems, such as
prairie, tundra, or desert.
 Human Activities and Environmental Stressors

These days, of course, ecosystems are influenced not just by “natural” environmental stressors. In
many situations, anthropogenic influences have become the most important constraining influence
on the productivity of species and on ecosystems more generally. These direct and indirect
influences have intensified enormously in modern times.

Humans affect ecosystems and species in three direct ways: (a) by harvesting valuable biomass,
such as trees and hunted animals; (b) by causing damage through pollution; and (c) by converting
natural ecosystems to into land-uses for the purposes of agriculture, industry, or urbanization.
Ethics and World Views

The choice that people make can influence environmental quality in many ways
– by affecting the availability of resources, causing pollution, and causing species
and natural ecosystems to become endangered. Decisions influencing
environmental quality are influenced by two types of considerations: knowledge
and ethics.
In the present context book, knowledge refers to information and understanding about the
natural world, and ethics refers to the perception of right and wrong and the appropriate
behaviour of people toward each other, other species, and nature. Of course, people may
choose to interact with the environment and ecosystems in various ways. On the one hand,
knowledge provides guidance about the consequences of alternative choices, including
damage that might be caused and actions that could be taken to avoid that effect. On the
other hand, ethics provides guidance about which alternative actions should be favoured
or even allowed to occur.
Because modern humans have enormous power to utilize and damage the environment,
the influence of knowledge and ethics on choices is a vital consideration. And we can
choose among various alternatives. For example, individual people can decide whether
to have children, purchase an automobile, or eat meat, while society can choose whether
to allow the hunting of whales, clear-cutting of forests, or construction of nuclear-power
plants. All of these options have implications for environmental quality.
 Perceptions of value (of merit or importance) also profoundly influence how the
consequences of human actions are interpreted. Environmental values can be
divided into two broad classes: utilitarian and intrinsic.

1. Utilitarian value (also known as instrumental value) is based on the known

importance of something to the welfare of people. Ecological values are somewhat
broader utilitarian values—they are based on the needs of humans, but also on those
of other species and natural ecosystems.
2. Intrinsic value is based on the belief that components of the natural environment (such
as species and natural ecosystems) have inherent value and a right to exist, regardless
of any positive, negative, or neutral relationships with humans.
There is also tension between ethical considerations that are individualistic and those that are
holistic. For example, animal-rights activists are highly concerned with issues involving the
treatment of individual organisms. Ecologists, however, are typically more concerned with holistic
values, such as a population, species, or ecosystem. As such, an ecologist might advocate a cull of
overabundant deer in a park in order to favour the survival of populations of endangered plants,
whereas that action might be resisted by an animal-rights activist.
Values and ethics, in turn, support larger systems known as world views. A world view is a
comprehensive philosophy of human life and the universe, and of the relationship between people
and the natural world. World views include traditional religions, philosophies, and science, as
well as other belief systems. In an environmental context, generally important world views are
known as anthropocentric, biocentric, and ecocentric, while the frontier and sustainability world
views are more related to the use of resources. The anthropocentric world view considers humans
as being at the centre of moral consideration. People are viewed as being more worthy than any
other species and as uniquely disconnected from the rest of nature. Therefore, the anthropocentric
world view judges the importance and worthiness of everything, including other species and
ecosystems, in terms of the implications for human welfare.
Biocentric world view

The biocentric world view focuses on living entities and considers all species (and
individuals) as having intrinsic value. Humans are considered a unique and special
species, but not as being more worthy than other species. As such, the biocentric world
view rejects discrimination against other species, or speciesism (a term similar to
racism or sexism).
Ecocentric world view

The ecocentric world view considers the direct and indirect connections among
species within ecosystems to be invaluable. It also includes consideration for
non-living entities, such as rocks, soil, and water. It incorporates the biocentric
world view but goes well beyond it by stressing the importance of interdependent
ecological functions, such as productivity and nutrient cycling.
 Frontier world view

The frontier world view asserts that humans have a right to exploit nature by consuming natural
resources in boundless quantities. This world view claims that people are superior and have a
right to exploit nature. Moreover, the supply of resources to sustain humans is considered to be
limitless, because new stocks can always be found, or substitutes discovered. The consumption
of resources is considered to be good because it enables economies to grow. Nations and
individuals should be allowed to consume resources aggressively, as long as no people are hurt
in the process.
 Sustainability world view

The sustainability world view acknowledges that humans must have access to vital
resources, but the exploitation of those necessities should be governed by appropriate
ecological, intrinsic, and aesthetic values. The sustainability world view can assume
various forms.

The spaceship world view is quite anthropocentric. It focuses only on sustaining resources
needed by people, and it assumes that humans can exert a great degree of control over
natural processes and can safely pilot “spaceship Earth.”
In contrast, ecological sustainability is more ecocentric. It considers people
within an ecological context and focuses on sustaining all components of Earth’s
life-support system by preventing human actions that would degrade them. In an
ecologically sustainable economy, natural goods and services should be utilized
only in ways that do not compromise their future availability and do not endanger
the survival of species or natural ecosystems.
The Environmental Crisis

Population

Resources

Environmental Quality
 Population

In 2015, the human population numbered more than 7.3 billion, including about 34 million in
Canada . At the global level, the human population has been increasing because of the excess of
birth rates over death rates. The recent explosive population growth, and the poverty of so many
people, is a root cause of much of the environmental crisis. Directly or indirectly, large population
increases result in extensive deforestation, expanding deserts, land degradation by erosion,
shortages of water, change in regional and global climate, endangerment and extinction of species,
and other great environmental problems. Considered together, these damages represent changes in
the character of the biosphere that are as cataclysmic as major geological events, such as
glaciation.
 Resources
Two kinds of natural resources can be distinguished. A non-renewable resource is present in a finite
quantity. As these resources are extracted from the environment, in a process referred to as mining, their
stocks are inexorably diminished and so are available in increasingly smaller quantities for future
generations. Non-renewable resources include metals and fossil fuels such as petroleum and coal. In
contrast, a renewable resource can regenerate after harvesting, and if managed suitably, can provide a
supply that is sustainable forever. However, to be renewable, the ability of the resource to regenerate
cannot be compromised by excessive harvesting or inappropriate management practices. Examples of
renewable resources include fresh water, the biomass of trees and agricultural plants and livestock, and
hunted animals such as fish and deer. Ultimately, a sustainable economy must be supported by
renewable resources. Too often, however, potentially renewable resources are not used responsibly,
which impairs their renewal and represents a type of mining.
Environmental Quality

This subject area deals with anthropogenic pollution and disturbances

and their effects on people, their economies, other species, and natural
ecosystems. Pollution may be caused by gases emitted by power plants
and vehicles, pesticides, or heated water discharged into lakes.
Examples of disturbance include clear-cutting, fishing, and forest fires.
Environmental Impacts of Humans

In a general sense, the cumulative impact of humans on the biosphere is a

function of two major factors: (1) the size of the population and (2) the per-capita
(per-person) environmental impact. The human population varies greatly among
and within countries, as does the per-capita impact, which depends on the kind
and degree of economic development that has occurred.
Paul Ehrlich, an American ecologist, has expressed this simple
relationship using an “impact formula,” as follows: I = P × A × T, where

● I is the total environmental impact of a human population

● P is the population size
● A is an estimate of the per-capita affluence in terms of resource use
● T is the degree of technological development of the economy, on a per-
capita basis

Calculations based on this simple PAT formula show that affluent, technological societies have a
much larger per-capita environmental impact than do poorer ones.
Ecologically Sustainable Development

Sustainable development refers to development of an economic system that

uses natural resources in ways that do not deplete them or otherwise
compromise their availability to future generations. In this sense, the present
human economy is clearly non-sustainable. The reason for this bold
assertion is that the present economy achieves rapid economic growth
through vigorous depletion of both non-renewable and renewable resources
A sustainable economy must be fundamentally supported by the wise use
of renewable resources, meaning they are not used more quickly than
their rate of regeneration. For these reasons, the term sustainable
development should refer only to progress being made toward a
sustainable economic system. Progress in sustainable development
involves the following sorts of desirable changes:

● increasing efficiency of use of non-renewable resources, for example, by careful recycling of

metals and by optimizing the use of energy
● increasing use of renewable sources of energy and materials in the economy (to replace non-
renewable sources)
● improving social equity, with the ultimate goal of helping all people (and not just a privileged
minority) to have reasonable access to the basic necessities and amenities of life
Quiz