PULSE AND DIGITAL CIRCUITS

III-B.Tech I- Sem-ECE
(R19 Regulation)

Prepared by
Dr. K. Raju, Professor,
Dept. of ECE, NEC.
 UNIT-
1
LINEAR WAVE
SHAPING
 Basics
Analog Quantities
• Most natural quantities that we see are analog and vary
continuously. Analog systems can generally handle
higher power than digital systems
Temperature
(F)

100
95
90
85
80
75
70

Time of day
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

• Digital systems can p r ocess, store, an d transmit data

A .M . P.M .

more efficiently but can only assign discrete values to

each point
 Analog and Digital
Systems
• Digital systems can process, store, and transmit data more
efficiently but can only assign discrete values to each point

CDdriv
e

101100111 Digital-to- Linearamplifie

01 analog Analog r
Digital data converter reproduction
ofmusic Speake
audio signal r
Soun
d
waves
 Contd.
•
.
Digital electronics uses circuits that have two states, which
are represented by two different voltage levels called HIGH
and LOW. The voltages represent numbers in the binary
system
• In binary, a single number is called a bit (for binary digit). A
voltage
bit is HIGH
can have or of either a 0 orVH(max
the value a 1, depending on if the
LOW. HIGH

VH(min INVALID

VL(max LOW

VL(min)
 Digital
•
Signals
Digital waveforms change between the LOW and HIGH
levels. A positive going pulse is one that goes from anormally
LOW logic level to a HIGH level and then back again.
Digital waveforms are made up of a series of pulses

HIGH HIGH

Rising or Falling or Falling or Rising or

leadingedge trailingedge leadingedge trailingedge

LOW LOW
t0 t1 t0 t1

(a) Positive–goingpulse (b)Negative–going pulse

 Pulse Definitions
• In addition to frequency and period, repetitive pulse
waveforms are described by the amplitude (A), pulse width
(tW) and duty cycle. Duty cycle is the ratio of tW to T.

Volt
s

Pulse
width
Amplitude
(tW)
Tim
Period, e
T
 Pulse Definitions

• Actual pulses are not ideal but are described by the

rise time, fall time, amplitude, and other
characteristics.
Overshoot
Ringing
Droop
90%
Amplitud tW
e 50%
Pulse width

10%
Ringin
g
Baseline Undershoo
tr tf t
Risetime Fall
time
 Wave
Shaping
Definition: It is the process of changing the
shape of input signal with linear / non-linear
circuits.
Types:
i.Linear Wave Shaping
ii.Non-linear Wave Shaping
 Linear Wave
Shaping
Definition: The process where by the form of a
non-sinusoidal signal is changed by
transmission through a linear network is called
Linear Wave Shaping.
Types:
i.High Pass RC Circuit.
ii.Low Pass RC Circuit.
 Non-sinusoidal wave
forms
1) Step
2) Pulse
3) Square wave
4) Ramp
5) Exponential wave
forms.
 Step
Waveform
A step voltage is one which maintains the value zero for all times t<0
and maintains the value V for all times t>0.
Vi
Vi=0 t<0
V
V i =V t>0

t
t=0

Pulse
The pulse amplitude is „V‟ and the pulse duration is
Vi
tp.
V 0≤t≤tp Vi=V
Otherwise Vi=0

0 t=0 t
t=tp
 Square
• A wave form which maintains itself at one constant level v for a time T
and atWave
1
1
other constant Level V for a time T and which is repetitive with
11
2
a period T=T1+T2 is called a square-wave.

T1 T2

Ramp
A waveform which is zero for t<0 and which increases linearly with time for
t>0.
Vi
Vi =αt

Vi =αt ,t>0
t
0
Exponential
• The exponential waveform input is given by
where T is the time constant of the exponential input
Vi

t
0
 High Pass RC
Circuit
C
+ +

R XC  1
Vi Vo 2f
C
- -
If f=low, Xc becomes high
C act as open circuit, so the Vo=0.

If f=high, Xc becomes low

C acts as short circuit, so we get the output.

The higher frequency components in

the input signal appear at the output with less
attenuation due to this behavior the circuit is called “High Pass
 Sinusoidal
input
• For Sinusoidal input, the output increases
in amplitude with increasing frequency.
C
Vo= iR + +

Vin Vin i R
i= = Vin V
R - j XC R- j
2πf C _ O
_

i= Vi
 1-n
j 
R
2πfRC

 V ×R
in
VO =i R= = Vin
1- j
 j 
R  1- 2πfR
 2πfR
C
C
VO 1
=
Vin
1+j -f1
f
VO 1
= 2 A 0.707
V in  f1 
1+ 
f

θ =-tan -1-f1 = tan-1f1


 f  f 

At the frequency f =
f1 1 =1
VO =
Vi =0.707
n
1+1 2
 At f = f1 the gain is 0.707 or this level corresponds to a signal reduction of 3
decibels(dB).
 f1 is referred to as Lower 3-dB frequency.
 Square wave input
• Percentage Tilt ( 0 0 Tilt)
Tilt is defined as the decay in the amplitude of the output voltage wave due
to the input voltage maintaining constant level

V1V 1 1
P X 100
V
2
-T1
'
V 1 = V 1. e RC (1)
-T2
V' 2
= V2 . e RC (2)
V '
1 - V 2 = V (3)
V- V ' = V (4)
1 2
• A symmetrical square wave is one for which T1=T2 = & because
symmetry V1 = - V 2 of
By substituting these in above equation (3)

•
-T2RC -
V=V1. e
V2
-T2RC+
V=V1. e
V1

-T2RC I
V=V1(1
+e )
Equation
(1)

II
 2
ForRC>> T
theequation(I)&(II)becomes
V1  V T
2 V 4RC as 2 )& V11  (1- )

4RC V1 1
(1+
Thepercentage tilt ‘P’ is

definedby P=
T -VV1 100
2
 High Pass RC circuit acts
as differentiator:-
• The time constant of high pass RC circuit in very small in comparison
within the time required for the input signal to make an appreciable
change, the circuit is called a “differentiator”.
• Under this circumstances the voltage drop across R will be very small
in comparison with the drop across C. Hence we may consider that
the total input Vi appears across C, so that the current is determined
entirely by the capacitance.
• Then the current is i = C and the output signal across R
V0 = iR is
V0 = RC
• hence the output is proportional to the derivative of the
input.
 Low Pass RC
Circuit

1
XC  2
f C

If f=low,Xc becomes high

C act as open circuit, so we get the output.

If f=high, Xc becomes low

C acts as short circuit, so Vo=0.

As the lower frequency signals appear at the output, it is called as

“Low pass RC circuit”.
 Sinusoidal
input
1
Vo  C i
S
Vin × XC
j
VO =
XC
R+
j
w 1
ere h XC=
2
V in × fC1
j
VO =
R+ C
j
C 1

V= Vin =
O
jRC+1
VinfRC
1+j2
VO = Vi 1
1+j ff2
n
where f =2 2R
C
A = VO = 1
Vin 1+ f
j f
2

A = 1 and θ=- tan -1  f

2

f  f 2
1+   
 f2  

At the frequency f = f2

1 =1
VO =
Vi =0.707
n
1+1 2
A 0.707
 At f = f2 the gain is 0.707 or this level corresponds to a signal reduction of 3
decibels(dB).

 f2 or fh is referred to as upper 3-dB frequency.

Square wave input
• Rise Time( tr):
The time required for the voltage to rise from 10 0 0to
900 0of the final steady value is called “Rise
Time”.

V’
V2 V’ V2
V01
Vd.c.
V02

V1 V’’
T1 T2
 The output voltage V01 & V02 is givenby

V01 = -
T1 …………………
V1 + (V1-V 1 ) . e RC
(1)
V02 T2
=V11 + (V2-V 11 ) . e - RC
if we V01 = V2 at …………………
set t=T
V02 =
1 V1 at t= (2)
and T1+T21 1
V2= V +( V1- - T 1 RC
V)e - 2
11 11 T R
1
V =V +( V2-V )
e C

Since the average across R is zero then the d.c voltage at the output is same as that of
the
input. This average value is indicated as Vd.c.
Consider a symmetrical square wave with zero average value, so that
V = V 1 - e - 2RC  
T

2 -T
2RC 
1 + 
e T
V  e T 2RC - 1  
V2 = 
2  e 2RC + 1
V  e2x - 1 
V = . T
where
2 x=
2 e2x + 1 4RC

V2 = V2tan hx
 Low pass RC circuit acts as an
integrator
• The time constant is very large in comparison with the time required for the
input signal to make an appreciable change, the circuit is called an
“Integrator”.
• As RC>>T the voltage drop across C will be very small in comparison to the
voltage drop across R and we may consider that the total input V i appear and
across R, then
Vi =iR

For low pass RC circuit the output voltage Vo is given by

VO = 1  i dt
C

VO=
1 Vi dt
C R

VO=
1 Vi
RC dt
Advantages of Integrator over differentiator
• Integrators are almost invariably preferred over differentiators in analog
computer applications for the following reasons.

• The gain of the integrator decreases with frequency where as the gain of
the differentiator increases linearly with frequency. It is easier to
stabilize the former than the latter with respect to spurious oscillations.

• As a result of its limited band width an integrator is less sensitive to

noise voltages than a differentiator.

• If the input wave form changes very rapidly, the amplifier of a

differentiator may over load.

• It is more convenient to introduce initial conditions in an integrator.

RL Circuits
• RL filter or RL
network, is an electric
circuit composed
of resistors and inductors
driven by a voltage or
current source
• XL = ωL