COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN POWER SYSTEMS

12/21/2021
KIBROM G. ADU
FAULT ANALYSIS
Kibrom G.
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FAULT ANALYSIS

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Analysis types
◆
power flow - evaluate normal operating conditions

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fault analysis - evaluate abnormal operating conditions
◆

 The cause of electric power system faults is insulation breakdown

 This breakdown can be due to a variety of different factors
 lightning
 wires blowing together in the wind
 animals or plants coming in contact with the wires
 salt spray or pollution on insulators

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FAULT TYPES

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 There are two main types of faults

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 symmetric faults: system remains balanced; these faults are relatively rare, but are
the easiest to analyze so we’ll consider them first.
 unsymmetrical faults: system is no longer balanced; very common, but more
difficult to analyze

 The most common type of fault on a three phase system by far is the single
line-to-ground (SL-G), followed by the line-to-line faults (L-L), double line-
to-ground (DL-G) faults, and balanced three phase faults
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LIGHTNING STRIKE EVENT SEQUENCE

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1. Lighting hit line, setting up an ionized path to ground
a single typical stroke might have 25,000 amps, with a rise time of 10 s,

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

dissipated in 200 s.

 multiple strokes can occur in a single flash, causing the lightning to appear to
sparkle, with the total event lasting up to a second.

2. Conduction path is maintained by ionized air after lightning stroke energy

has dissipated, resulting in high fault currents (often > 25,000 amps!)

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 LIGHTNING STRIKE SEQUENCE, CONT’D

3. Within one to two cycles (16 ms) relays at both ends of line detect high
currents, signaling circuit breakers to open the line
 nearby locations see decreased voltages

4. Circuit breakers open to de-energize line in an additional one to two cycles

 breaking tens of thousands of amps of fault current is no small feat!
 with line removed voltages usually return to near normal

5. Circuit breakers may reclose after several seconds, trying to restore faulted
line to service
FAULT TYPES

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Fault types:
 balanced faults Percentage of total faults

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 three-phase <5%
Balanced faults
 single-line to ground 60-75%
 double-line to ground 15-25%
 line-to-line faults 5-15%
Unbalance fault analysis requires new tools
 symmetrical components

 augmented component models

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 FAULT ANALYSIS
 Fault currents cause equipment damage due to both thermal and
mechanical processes
 Goal of fault analysis is to determine the magnitudes of the currents
present during the fault which is;
 need to determine the maximum current to insure devices can survive the fault
 need to determine the maximum current the circuit breakers (CBs) need to
interrupt to correctly size the CBs
 GENERATOR MODELING DURING
FAULTS
 During a fault the only devices that can contribute fault current are
those with energy storage
 Thus the models of generators (and other rotating machines) are
very important since they contribute the bulk of the fault current.
 Generators can be approximated as a constant voltage behind a
time-varying reactance

'
Ea
FAULT ANALYSIS

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 In order to calculate the subtransient fault current for a three-phase short circuit in a power system, we make

the following assumptions:

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1. Transformers are represented by their leakage reactances. Winding resistances, shunt admittances, and D–Y

phase shifts are neglected.

2. Transmission lines are represented by their equivalent series reactances. Series resistances and shunt

admittances are neglected.

3. Synchronous machines are represented by constant-voltage sources behind subtransient reactances. Armature

resistance, saliency, and saturation are neglected.

4. All nonrotating impedance loads are neglected.

5. Induction motors are either neglected (especially for small motors rated less than 50 hp) or represented in the
9
same manner as synchronous machines.
FAULT ANALYSIS

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Results used for:

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◆
specifying ratings for circuit breakers and fuses
◆
protective relay settings
◆
specifying the impedance of transformers and generators
•
Magnitude of fault currents depend on:
◆
the impedance of the network
◆
the internal impedances of the generators
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◆
the resistance of the fault (arc resistance)
FAULT ANALYSIS

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Network impedances are governed by

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transmission line impedances
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transformer connections and impedances
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grounding connections and resistances
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Generator behavior is divided into three periods
◆
sub-transient period, lasting for the first few cycles
◆
transient period, covering a relatively longer time
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◆
steady state period
FAULT ANALYSIS

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Sub-transient period, XG = Xd"
determine the interrupting capacity of HV circuit breakers

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◆

◆
determine the operation timing of the protective relay system for high-voltage
networks
•
Transient period, XG = Xd’
◆
determine the interrupting capacity of MV circuit breakers
◆
determine the operation timing of the protective relay system for medium-voltage
networks
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◆
transient stability studies
FAULT REPRESENTATION

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A fault represents a structural network change
 equivalent to the addition of an impedance at the place of the fault

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 if the fault impedance is zero, the fault is referred to as a bolted fault or solid fault

First order method

 the faulted network can be solved conveniently by Thévenin’s method
 network resistances are neglected
 generators are modeled as an emf behind the sub-transient or transient reactance
 shunt capacitances are neglected
 system is considered as having no-load
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 THÉVENIN’S METHOD
The fault is simulated by switching a fault impedance at the faulted bus

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

 The change in the network voltages is equivalent to adding the prefault bus voltage with all other sources
short circuited

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THÉVENIN’S METHOD

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3-phase fault with Zf = j0.16 on bus 3

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j0.2 j0.4 j0.2 j0.4
1 2 1 2
j0.8 j0.8
=
j0.4 j0.4
j 0.4
3 j 0.4
3

If Vth
Xf = 0.16 Xf = 0.16

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 Thévenin’s Method

Using Wye Delta transformation

V3[0]
I 3[ f ]  Z  Z
33 f

V [0]  V [0]  V [0]  1.0

j0.2 j0.4 1 2 3
1 2 j0.24

Z1s  Z 2 s 
 j0.4
j 0.2
 j0.2
j0.2 j0.8 j0.1

j0.1
 j1.6
 j0.4 j0.4   3
Z 
3s
  j0.1
3 Vth Vth
Xf = 0.16 j1.6
Z 
 j0.4  j0.1
If
j0.16
If 33
j0.4  j0.6
j0.6
Z33  j0.34
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G. ADU
THÉVENIN’S METHOD

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 .
Z33  j0.34

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V3[0] 1.0
Z33 = j0.34
   j2.0
3 I 3[ f ]  Z 
33 f j0.34  j0.16
Z
Vth
If j0.16

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THÉVENIN’S METHOD

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 For more accurate solutions
 use the pre-fault bus voltages which can be obtained from the results of a

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power flow solution
 include loads - to preserve linearity, convert loads to constant impedance
model
 Thevenin’s theorem allows the changes in the bus voltages to be obtained

 bus voltages are obtained by superposition of the pre-fault voltages and the
changes in the bus voltages
 current in each branch can be solved

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SHORT CIRCUIT CAPACITY (SCC)

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
Measures the electrical strength of the bus Stated in MVA

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
Determines the dimension of bus bars and the interrupting capacity of
circuit breakers
•
Definition: SCC  3 [pref ]
[f ]
L I
in per unit: V
L,k k
◆

Vk[pref ]
I [f ]
k 
X kk
SB
SCC 
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X kk
SHORT CIRCUIT CAPACITY (SCC)

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Find the SCC for bus #3

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j0.2 j0.4

1 2
j 0.4 j0.8

Z 33  j0.34 j0.4

3
S base  100
MVA
SCC3  Sbase 100 MVA
Z 33  0.34  294 MVA
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FAULT ANALYSIS USING IMPEDANCE MATRIX

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Network reduction by Thévenin’s method is not efficient
 difficult to apply to large networks

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Matrix algebra formation
 seek a matrix where the diagonal elements represent the source impedance for the
buses j k
i
 consider the following system G

operating under balanced conditions each Si Sk

generator represented by a constant emf behind

Zf
a proper reactance (Xd, Xd, or Xd )
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lines represented by their equivalent  model
FAULT ANALYSIS USING IMPEDANCE MATRIX

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Using superpositioning, the fault voltages are calculated from the prefault
voltages by adding the change in bus voltages due to the fault

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[f ]
V bus  V [pref
bus ]  V bus

•
The change in bus voltages Ibus  Ybus Vbus
can be calculated from the
network matrix I[Fault]  Ybus Vbus
bus

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 COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN POWER
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f
Vk[pref ]
I k[f ]  Z  Z
kk
Example

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3-phase fault with Zf = j0.16 on bus 3
•

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j0.2 j0.4 j0.2 j0.4
1 2 1 2
j 0.4 j0.8 j 0.4 j0.8

j0.4 j0.4
3 3

If Vth
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Xf = 0.16 Xf = 0.16
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Example
Example

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V1[ f ]  V 1[ pre f ]  Z I
13 3[ f ]  1.0 pu   j2.0   0.76
V [ f ]  V [ pre f ]  Z I    j2.0pu 0.68

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2 2 23 3  1.0 pu j0.12
[ f ][ f ]
V Z j0.161.0 pu   puj2.0  0.32
[ pre f ] [
V 
3 3 33 I 3
f]
j0.34 pu

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Power Systems I
THE BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX

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 Definition

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Z bus  Y 1
bus
 Direct formation of the matrix
 inversion of the bus admittance matrix is a n>3 effort

 for small and medium size networks, direct building of the matrix is less
effort
 for large size networks, sparse matrix programming with gaussian
elimination technique is preferred

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SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

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 Allow unbalanced three-phase phasor quantities to be
replaced by the sum of three separate but balanced
symmetrical components

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 applicable to current and voltages
 permits modeling of unbalanced systems and networks
 Representative symmetrical components

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