FaultCal Adv

Modern Protection Methods - Lect 2 Fault Calculations 05/09/2005
Lecture 2
Fault Calculations
05/09/2005 Hong Kong Polytechnic University 1
Symmetrical and Unsymmetrical Fault

Calculations
Per unit representation
Symmetrical fault calculations
Sequence components
Connection of sequence networks under
various unsymmetrical fault conditions
Transformer zero sequence network
representation
Hong Kong Polytechnic University 05/09/2005 2
Hong Kong Polytechnic University 1

Symmetrical Fault Analysis

Per Unit Values
The per unit values of any quantity is defined
as the ratio of the quantity expressed as a
decimal to its base value.
V I
V pu= I pu =
Vb Ib
MVA
MVA pu = MVA b = 3Vb ph I b ph
MVAb
Z Vb
Z pu = where Z b =
Zb Ib
IbZ
=
Vb
3Vb I b Z MVA SC = 3Vb I f
=
3Vb2 MVAb
=
MVAb Z Z T pu
=
(Vb line )2

Change of MVA base

MVAb new Z
Z pu new =
(Vb line ) 2
MVAb old Z
Z pu old =
(Vb line ) 2
Z pu new MVAb new
=
Z pu old MVAb old
Change of Voltage base

MVAb Z
Z pu new =
(Vb l new ) 2
MVAb Z
Z pu old =
(Vb l old ) 2
Z pu new (Vb l old ) 2
=
Z pu old (Vb l new ) 2

Change of both MVA base and Voltage

base
Z pu new MVAb new (Vb l old ) 2

=
Z pu old MVAb old (Vb l new ) 2
Symmetrical Components
V a= Zs Ia + Zm Ib + Zm Ic
V b= Zm Ia + Zs Ib+ Zm Ic
V c= Zm Ia+ Zm Ib+ Zs Ic
[V ] = [Z ][I ]
⎡ ⎤ ⎡V a ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡I a⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ Z s Z m Z m⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢V ⎥ = ⎢V b ⎥ ⎢ I ⎥ = ⎢ I b⎥ ⎢Z ⎥ = ⎢ Z m Z s Z m ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣V c ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ I c ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ Z m Z m Z s ⎥⎦

⎡ ⎤ ⎡1 1 1⎤ ⎡1 1 1⎤
-1
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ 1⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
A = ⎢1 a
2
a ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
A = ⎢ 1 a a
2
⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ 3 ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣1 a 2 a ⎥⎦
a = 1∠120° 1+ a + a2 = 0
[V ] = [Z ][A][A]-1 [I ]
[A]−1 [V ] = [A]-1 [Z ][A]× [A]-1 [I ]
-1
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡1 1 1⎤ ⎡V a ⎤ ⎡V o ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ 1⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ A ⎥ ⎢V ⎥ = 3 ⎢1 a a ⎥ ⎢V b ⎥ = ⎢V 1⎥ = ⎢ V s ⎥
2
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣⎢1 a
2
a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣V c ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢V 2 ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ _ ⎦⎥
V0 = 1 (Va + Vb + Vc )
3
(
V1 = 1 Va + aVb + a 2Vc
3
)
(
V2 = 1 Va + a 2Vb + aVc
3
)
-1
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡1 1 1⎤ ⎡ I a ⎤ ⎡ I o ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ 1⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ 3
A I = ⎢ 1 a a
2
⎥ ⎢ I b ⎥ = ⎢ I 1⎥ = ⎢ Is ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣⎢1 a
2
a ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ I c ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ I 2 ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ _ ⎦⎥
I 0 = 1 (I a + I b + I c )
3
I 1 = 1 (I a + aI b + a 2 I c )
3
I 2 = 1 (I a + a 2 I b + aI c )
3

[A]−1 [Z ][A] = [Z ]
⎡1 1 1⎤ ⎡ Z s Z m Z m ⎤ ⎡1 1 1⎤
1⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢1 a a 2 ⎥ ⎢ Z m Z s Z m ⎥ ⎢1 a 2 a ⎥
3⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣1 a 2 a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Z m Z m Z s ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦
⎡Z s + 2 Z m 0 0⎤ ⎡Z o 0 0⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
=⎢ 0 Zs - Zm 0⎥ = ⎢ 0 Z 1 0⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ 0 0 Z s - Z m ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ 0 0 Z 2 ⎦⎥
⎡V o ⎤ ⎡ Z o 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ I o ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢V 1⎥ = ⎢ 0 Z 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ I 1⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣V 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 Z 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 2 ⎥⎦
[ I ] = [ A ] [ Is ]
⎡ I a ⎤ ⎡1 1 1⎤ ⎡ I o ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢ I b⎥ ⎢ a
= 1 2
a ⎥ ⎢ I 1⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ I c ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢1 a a ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ I 2 ⎦⎥
2
⎡V a ⎤ ⎡1 1 1⎤ ⎡V o ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢V b ⎥ = ⎢1 a 2 a ⎥ ⎢V 1⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢V c ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢1 a a ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢V 2 ⎦⎥
2

Single phase to earth (L-E) fault
Ia
Ib
Ic
Va = 0 ∴, V1 + V2 + V0 = 0
I a = I f = I1 + I 2 + I 0
Ib = Ic = 0
1
I1 = I 2 = I 0 = I f
3
The +ve, -ve, 0 sequence networks are

therefore connected in series

Z1T
+ve G E1
Z2T
-ve
Z0T
0
Example 1 – For a L-E fault in the system

shown below, calculate
The fault current
The phase–earth voltage of all 3 phases at R
Z1=j0.1 pu
Z2=j0.15 pu
Z0=j0.2 pu
R
G •
Z1=Z2=j0.2 pu
E=1.0 pu
Z0=j0.4 pu

1 1
I1 = I 2 = I 0 = = = − j 0.8
Z 1T + Z 2T + Z 0T j1.25
I F = 3I 0 = − j 2.4
V1 = E − I 1 Z 1S = 1 − (− j 0.8)( j 0.1) = 0.92
V2 = − I 2 Z 2 S = −(− j 0.8)( j 0.15) = −0.12
V0 = − I 0 Z 0 S = −(− j 0.8)( j 0.2 ) = −0.16
V A = V1 + V2 + V0 = 0.64
V B = a 2V1 + aV2 + V0 = 0.92∠240° − 0.12∠120° − 0.16
= −0.56 − j 0.9007 = 1.06∠ − 122°
V B = aV1 + a 2V2 + V0 = 0.92∠120° − 0.12∠240° − 0.16
= −0.56 + j 0.9007 = 1.06∠122°
Single phase to earth (L-E) fault with fault

resistance
Ia
Ib
Ic
Rf

Va = I f Zf ∴, V1 + V2 + V0 = I f R f
I a = I f = I1 + I 2 + I 0
Ib = Ic = 0
1
I1 = I 2 = I 0 = I f
3
V1 + V2 + V0 = 3I 0 R f
Z1T
+ve G E1
-ve Z2T
Z0T
0
3Rf

Example 2 – Calculate
The value of the neutral earthing resistance in
pu to limit the magnitude of the fault current
of a L-E fault to 1.2 pu
Z1=j0.1 pu
Z2=j0.15 pu
Z0=j0.2 pu
R
G •
Z1=Z2=j0.2 pu
E=1.0 pu
Z0=j0.4 pu
3 3
I F = 3I 0 = =
Z 1T + Z 2T + Z 0T + 3R N 3R N + j1.25
3
IF = = 1.2
3R N + j1.25
32
= 1.2 2
(3R N ) 2
+ 1.25 2
R N = 0.72

Phase to phase (L-L) fault
Ia
Ib
Ic
Ia = 0 ∴, I b = − I c = I f
I1 + I 2 = 0
Vb = Vc = V f
V1 = V2
The +ve, and -ve sequence networks are

therefore connected in parallel

Z1T
+ve G E1
-ve Z2T
Z0T
0
Example 3 – a B-C fault occurs in the

system below, calculate
The fault current
Z1=j0.1 pu
Z2=j0.15 pu
Z0=j0.2 pu
R
G •
Z1=Z2=j0.2 pu
E=1.0 pu
Z0=j0.4 pu

1 1
I1 = I 2 = = = − j1.538
Z1T + Z 2T j 0.65
I F = I B = a 2 I 1 + aI 2 = a 2 − a I 1( )
= j 3I 1 = 2.66∠180°
Phase to phase to earth (L-L-E) fault

with fault resistance
Ia
Ib
Ic
Rf

Ia = 0 I1 + I 2 + I 0 = 0
I f = Ib + Ic I b + I c = 3I 0
Vb = Vc = I f R f
V1 =
1
3
( 1
3
)
V a + aV b + a 2 V c = (V a − V b )
1
3
( 1
3
)
V 2 = V a + a 2 V b + aV c = (V a − V b )
V 0 = (V a + V b + V c ) = (V a + 2V b )
1 1
3 3
= V1 + V b = V1 + 3 I 0 R f
V1 = V 2 = V 0 − 3 I 0 R f
Z1T
+ve G E1
-ve Z2T
Z0T
0
3Rf

Effect of Fault Impedance

Assume pre-fault load current = 0
EA, EB are in phase and have same magnitude.
EA = EB = E
Single phase to earth (L-E) fault with fault

resistance
I1’, I2’, I0’
Ia Ia ’
Ib
Ic
Rf

Z1T
+ve G E1
-ve Z2T
Z0T
0
3Rf
I A = I 1' + I 2' + I 0' = C1 I 1 + C 2 I 2 + C 0 I 0

Z B1T
C1 =
Z A1T + Z B1T
where Z A1T = Z SA1 + Z LA1
Z B1T = Z SB1 + Z LB1
Normally the + ve and - ve sequence
networks are identical
∴, I A = 2C1 I 1 + C 0 I 0

V A1 = C1 I 1 Z LA1 + V1
V A 2 = C 2 I 2 Z LA 2 + V2 = C1 I 1 Z LA1 + V2
V A0 = C 0 I 0 Z LA0 + V0
V1 + V2 + V0 = 3I 0 R f
V A = 2C1 I 1 Z LA1 + C 0 I 0 Z LA0 + 3I 0 R f
Transformer Sequence Impedance

+ve and –ve sequence impedance

Zero sequence impedance of a two

winding transformer
The exciting branch is now the exciting
impedance to zero sequence voltages or currents
which are identical in all three phases. The core
design of transformer will affect the zero
sequence impedance.
Account must be taken of the method of
interconnection of the windings and the presence
or absence of a neutral connection.

Does a physical circuit exist by means of which

zero sequence currents can be passed into the
winding in question from the external circuit on
that side (i.e. is there a neutral point on the
transformer or elsewhere which is connected to
earth or to a neutral wire, possibly through an
impedance). If so, the link 'a' is closed; if not it is
left open. This is done for each side of the
transformer in turn.
Can zero sequence currents circulate in the
winding in question, without flowing in the
external circuit (i.e. does a delta connection
exist). If so, the appropriate link 'b' is closed.


+ve and –ve sequence network of three

winding transformers

Zero sequence network of three winding

transformers

Earthing Methods
Solidly earthed
Resistance earthed
Reactance earthed
Resonant or Peterson Coil earthed
Insulated earthed
Earthing transformer
Solidly earthed
The zero sequence impedance is a minimum. The
earth fault current is highest. However, overvoltage
in unfaulted phases is a minimum. Earth fault
protection is simple as the fault current is usually
high. Overvoltage during earth faults is usually less
than 0.8 times phase to phase voltage.
Resistance earthed
Earthing the system by resistor reduces both the fault
current and transient overvoltages. However, high
value of earthing resistance will produce overvoltage
in unfaulted phases during earth faults approaching
to phase to phase voltage.

Reactance earthed
Reactors are usually smaller and less expensive than
resistors, it can reduce fault current but this is
associated with a increase in transient overvoltages
during earth faults. Transient overvoltages are a
maximum when the value of earthing reactance is
approximately one third of the value required for
resonant earthing. In order to reduce the transient
overvoltages to an admissible level the earthing
reactance has to be reduced so that the earth fault
current approaches that for a solidly earthed system.
Overvoltages during earth faults will be between 0.8
times and full phase to phase voltage.
Resonant or Peterson Coil earthed

When the earthing reactance is equal to the
total system capacitive reactance to earth,
arcing earth faults will be self extinguishing.
The system capacitance must however
remain fairly constant, otherwise the
efficiency of this earthing method is greatly
diminished. The steady state voltages in the
sound phases during a phase to earth fault is
the full phase to phase voltage.

Insulated earthed
The earth fault current is capacitive and if
small may be self extinguished. Automatic
segregation of faulty zones is extremely
difficult. The system can be run with an
earth fault for long periods. Overvoltages
during earth faults may be greater than phase
to phase voltage. Arcing earth faults are very
likely and these can result in high transient
overvoltages.
Earthing transformer
In some cases where the neutral of the power
transformer is not available, the system is earthed
via a earthing transformer of zig-zag type. A
minimum impedance is offered to the flow of zero
sequence currents. Under normal operating
conditions the currents flowing through the
windings are the magnetising currents of the
earthing transformer. The earthing transformer is
designed to carry the maximum fault current for 30
seconds.

Use of earthing transformer
Variation of Healthy Phase Voltages -

Single Phase to Earth Fault
2
a + aK 2 + K 0
Vb = a 2V1 + aV2 + V0 = Eb − Ea
(1 + K 2 + K 0 )
a + a2 K2 + K0
Vc = aV1 + a V2 + V0 = Ec −
2
E
(1 + K 2 + K 0 ) a
K0 −1
Vb = Eb − E
(2 + K 0 ) a
K0 −1
Vc = E c − E
(2 + K 0 ) a

Effectively
earthed system
Non-effectively
earthed system
A-E Fault
Phase to Phase to Earth Fault
3K 2 K 0
Va = Ea
(K 2 + K 0 + K 2 K 0 )
3K 0
= Ea if K 2 = 1
(1 + 2K 0 )

B-C-E Fault
For solidly earthed system and with a earth fault close to

generation, K0 may be approaching to 0.5. In this case,
the voltage in the sound phase is below rated phase to
neutral voltage.
For solidly earthed system and with a earth fault more
distant from generation, K0 may be approaching to 1.0.
In this case, the voltage in the sound phase equals the
rated phase to neutral voltage.
Even on a solidly earthed system a earth fault far away
from the source of generation, can result in a value of K0
approaching to 2.5 to 4.5. The voltage in the sound phase
will increase above the normal rated phase to neutral
voltage.

What is effective earthed system?

During phase to earth faults, the voltage to
earth voltage of the sound phases does not
exceed 80 % of the voltage between lines
of the system.
Effective earthing includes

Direct earthing
Low reactance earthing.
Non effective earthing is characterised
by a high Z0 / Z1 ratio (large K0) and
includes
Resistance earthing
Distribution transformer earthing
Resonant earthing
Insulated systems.

Neutral Displacement and Residual

Voltages
3V AN
VNG = − I F Z E = − ZE
Z1 (1 + K 2 + K 0 ) + 3Z E
ZE
=− V AN if K 2 = K 0 = 1
Z1 + Z E

Residual voltage measurement can be used

to detect earth faults on a system and to
provide a polarising quantity for directional
earth fault relays.
The residual voltage Vres depends mainly
on the value of K0 and ZE.
On systems with high earthing impedance
or insulated neutral, the value of Vres will
approach 3 times rated phase to neutral
voltage.
On solidly earthed systems the value of K0 may

be small and there may be insufficient neutral
displacement to provide the necessary polarising
quantities. For this reason, where directional earth
fault relays are used at generating stations where
the system is solidly earthed, current polarisation
is preferred to voltage polarisation.
As the voltage between the neutral of power
transformers and earth is small during earth faults
on solidly earthed systems, graded insulation can
be used with considerable reduction in cost.

Calculate the value of the neutral

earthing resistor to limit the earth fault
current to 2 times full load current of the
transformer and the voltage of unfaulted
phases
15 kV at the busbar.
125 MW
Z= j0.125 pu
Z1=j0.08pu
150 MVA
Z2=j0.12pu
15/132 kV
Z0=j0.2pu
132 kV
G
Z1=Z2= j5Ω
Z0= j10Ω
3
=2
ZT1 + ZT 2 + Z T 0 + 3RN
3
=2
3RN + j 0.787
[(3R N ) 2 + 0.787 2 = 2.25 ]
RN = 0.4256 = 49.4Ω

1
I1 = I 2 = I 0 =
3 × 0.4256 + j 0.787
= 0.5675 − j 0.35 = 0.667∠ − 31.6°
V B / B1 = E − I 1 ( Z S 1 + Z Tx1 )
= 1 − (0.5675 − j 0.35)( j 0.221) = 0.923 − j 0.125
V B / B 2 = − I 2 ( Z S 2 + Z Tx 2 )
= −(0.5675 − j 0.35)( j 0.264) = −0.0923 − j 0.1498
VB / B0 = − I 0 ( Z Tx 0 + 3 R N )
= −(0.5675 − j 0.35)(1.277 + j 0.125) = −0.768 + j 0.376
VB / B A = VB / B1 + VB / B 2 + VB / B 0
= 0.06 + j 0.1 = 9.1kV
VB / B B = a 2VB / B1 + aVB / B 2 + VB / B 0
= (−0.5 − j 0.866)(0.923 − j 0.125) +
(−0.5 + j 0.866)(−0.0923 − j 0.1498) + (−0.768 + j 0.376)
= −1.162 − j 0.366 = 1.22∠ − 162.5° = 93kV
VB / B C = aVB / B1 + a 2VB / B 2 + VB / B 0
= (−0.5 + j 0.866)(0.923 − j 0.125) +
(−0.5 − j 0.866)(−0.0923 − j 0.1498) + (−0.768 + j 0.376)
= −1.21 + j1.393 = 1.84∠131° = 140kV

Advance Fault Calculation

How a 3 phase auto transformer is
represented in unsymmetrical fault
calculation?
More unsymmetrical fault calculation
Open circuit fault
Simultaneous fault – OC and 1 Ph/E fault
simultaneously
Sequence circuit of 3 phase auto transformer
Positive and negative sequence network of a 3 phase auto transformer
Zero sequence network of a 3 phase auto transformer

I L 0 n C = I H 0 (n S + n C )
With the tertiary winding open circuited
nC
I H 0= I L 0
n S + nC
1
= I L0
1+ N
nS
where N =
nC
EH n + nC
= S =1+ N
EL nC
⎡ 1 ⎤
I L 0 − I H 0 = I L 0 ⎢1 −
⎣ 1 + N ⎥⎦
N
= I L0
1+ N
In the zero sequence network, Z X seems to be :

I L 0 Z X = I L 0 Z L + 3(I L 0 − I H 0 )Z n
N
= ZL + 3 Zn
1+ N
Similarly,on the HV side, Z Y' seems to be :
I H 0 Z Y = Z H − 3(I L 0 − I H 0 )Z n
I L0 I N
Z Y = L0 Z H − 3 I L0 Z n
1+ N 1+ N 1+ N
Z Y = Z H − 3NZ n referring to HV side
N
Z Y' = Z H' − 3Z n referring to LV side
(1 + N )2

Now consider the HV side open circuited but with the

tertiary winding closed
I T 0 (Z X + Z Z ) = I L 0 (Z L + Z T + 3 Z n )
Z X + Z Z = Z L + Z T + 3Z n by using p.u. values
N
As Z X = Z L + 3Z n
1+ N
1
∴, Z Z = Z T + 3Z n
1+ N
Open circuit fault – open circuit of phase

conductor
E xa = E ya + I a Z a and E x0=
1
3
[
(E ya + I a Z a ) + E yb + E yc ]
E xb = E yb
[
= (E ya + E yb + E yc ) + I a Z a
1
3
]
E xc = E yc
1
E x0= E y0+ I a Z a
3
1
and similarly E x1 = E y1 + I a Z a
3
1
E x2= E y2+ I a Z a
3

IaZa = Za (I1 + I2 + I0 )
1 1
3 3
Simultaneous fault –one phase open circuit

on one side and phase to earth fault on the
other side in the same phase
Ia P Q Ia ’
Ib I b’
Ic Ic’
G

For the open circuit fault at P side,

I a= 0
∴, I a1= −( I a 2 + I a 0 )
V b−Vb' = 0
( ) ( ) (
∴, a 2 V a1−Va'1 + a V a 2−Va' 2 + V a 0−Va' 0 = 0 )
V c−Vc' = 0
( ) ( ) (
∴, a V a1−Va'1 + a 2 V a 2−Va' 2 + V a 0−Va' 0 = 0 )
For this to be true,
(V a1 ) (
−Va'1 = V a 2−Va' 2 = V a 0−Va' 0) ( )

For the 1 phase to earth fault at Q side,

Va' = 0
∴, Va'1 + Va' 2 + Va' 0 = 0
I b+ I b' = 0
( ) ( ) (
∴, a 2 I a1+ I a' 1 + a I a 2+ I a' 2 + I a 0+ I a' 0 = 0 )
I c+ I c' = 0
( ) ( ) (
∴, a I a1+ I a' 1 + a 2 I a 2+ I a' 2 + I a 0+ I a' 0 = 0 )
For this to be true,
(I ) ( ) (
+ I a' 1 = I a 2+ I a' 2 = I a 0+ I a' 0
a1 )

Fault Transients in Power System
400 kV system, line length 125 km

Fault point is 100 km away from local end
Remote end source fault level 35 GVA
Local end source fault level changes from 35 GVA
(strong source) to 5 GVA (weak source)
Fault inception is at voltage zero to produce
maximum transient but has negligible offsets
Strong source
Voltage and current at relaying point


Weak Source
Voltage and current at relaying point

Further Study
Paul M. Anderson, “Analysis of Faulted
Power Systems”, IEEE Press, 1995.

Self Evaluation
Do you understand the physical meaning of positive
and negative sequence components?
What is the relationship between mutual coupling
impedance and sequence impedance in the power
system?
How do you transform between the actual system
voltages and currents into their corresponding sequence
components?
Do you understand why the actual system network can
be transformed into sequence networks?
How the sequence networks are connected under
various unsymmetrical faults?
Self Evaluation
Do you know how to form the zero sequence network
of a power transformer? Now do you understand how to
form the zero sequence network of the power system?
Do you know how to solve tutorial questions from 1 to
10?
How do you connect the sequence networks for an open
circuited fault?
How to represent the simultaneous fault by sequence
networks?
Are you able to solve the open circuit and simultaneous
fault problems from Q11 to Q15?

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Modern Protection Methods - Lect 2 Fault Calculations 05/09/2005

05/09/2005 Hong Kong Polytechnic University 1

Symmetrical and Unsymmetrical Fault

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Symmetrical Fault Analysis

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Change of MVA base

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Change of Voltage base

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Change of both MVA base and Voltage

Z pu new MVAb new (Vb l old ) 2

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Single phase to earth (L-E) fault

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The +ve, -ve, 0 sequence networks are

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Example 1 – For a L-E fault in the system

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Single phase to earth (L-E) fault with fault

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Phase to phase (L-L) fault

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The +ve, and -ve sequence networks are

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Example 3 – a B-C fault occurs in the

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Phase to phase to earth (L-L-E) fault

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Effect of Fault Impedance