ADVANCED SURVEYING

CEE-211

•Lecture 2
•Tacheometric Surveying
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Introduction
 Tacheometry is a branch of surveying in which horizontal and vertical
distances are determined by taking angular observations with an instrument
known as a tacheometer.
 The chaining operation is completely eliminated in such a survey.
 Tacheometric surveying is adopted in rough and difficult
terrain where direct levelling and chaining are either not possible or very
tedious.
 It is also used in location survey for railways, roads, reservoirs, etc.
 Though not very accurate, tacheometric surveying is very rapid, and a
reasonable contour map can be prepared for investigation works within a short time
on the basis of such survey.
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Instruments used in Tacheometry
a) The Tacheometer
It is actually a transit theodolite fitted with a stadia diaphragm and an anallatic lens. Figure
shows the different forms of stadia diaphragm commonly used.

.
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Instruments used in Tacheometry
b) The Levelling Staff and Stadia Rod
For short distances, ordinary levelling staves are used. The levelling staff is normally 4 m
long, and can be folded into three parts. The graduations are so marked that a minimum
reading of 0.005 or 0.001 m, can be taken.
For long sights, a specially designed graduated rod is used, which is known
as a stadia rod. It is also 4 m long, and may be folded or telescopic. The
graduations are comparatively bold and clear and the minimum reading that can be taken is
0.001 m.
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Characteristics of a Tacheometer
a) The value of the multiplying constant f/i should be 100.
b) The telescope should be powerful, having a magnification of 20 to 30 diameters.
c) The aperture of the objective should be of 35 to 45 mm diameter for a bright image.
d) The telescope should be fitted with an anallatic lens to make the additive constant (f +
d) exactly equal to zero.
e) The eyepiece should be of greater magnifying power than usual, so that it is possible to
obtain a clear staff reading from a long distance.
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Principle of Tacheometry
 The principle of tacheometry is based on the property of isosceles triangles, where the ratio of
the distance of the base from the apex and the length of the base is always constant.
 In Figure, o1a1a2, o1b1b2, and o1c1c2 are all isosceles triangles where D1, D2 and D3 are the
distances of the bases from the apices, and S1, S2 and
S3 are the lengths of the bases (staff intercepts).
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Principle of Tacheometry

 So, according to the stated principle,

 The constant f/i is known as the multiplying constant,

 f = focal length of objective and

 i = stadia intercept
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THEORY OF STADIA TACHEOMETRY
 The following is the notation used in stadia tacheometry:
 O = optical centre of object glass
 A1, A2, C = readings on staff cut by three hairs
 a1, a2, C1 = bottom, top and central hairs of diaphragm
 a1 a2 = i = length of image
 A1A2 = S = staff intercept
 F = focus
 V = vertical axis of instrument
 f = focal length of object glass
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THEORY OF STADIA TACHEOMETRY
 d = distance between optical centre and vertical axis of instrument
 u = distance between optical centre and staff
 v = distance between optical centre and image
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THEORY OF STADIA TACHEOMETRY
 From similar triangles a1o a2 and
A1 O A2,

or

……. (1)
 From the properties of lenses,

. . . . . . .(2)
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THEORY OF STADIA TACHEOMETRY
Putting the value of v in Eq. (2)

……(3)
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THEORY OF STADIA TACHEOMETRY
 But
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THEORY OF STADIA TACHEOMETRY
 The quantities (f/i) and (f + d) are known as tacheometric constants. (f/i) is called the
multiplying constant, as already stated, and (f + d) the additive constant.

 By adopting an anallatic lens in the telescope of a tacheometer, the

multiplying constant is made 100, and the additive constant zero.

 However, in some tacheometers, the additive constants are not exactly

zero, but vary from 30 cm to 60 cm (which are generally mentioned in the catalogue supplied
by the manufacturer).
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Determination of tachometer or Stadia Constant
 The constants may be determined by
1. Laboratory measurement
2. Field measurement
1. Laboratory Measurement
The focal length f of the lens can be determined by means of an optical
bench, according to the equation:

The stadia intercept i can be measured from the diaphragm with the help of
a vernier calliper.
The distance d between the optical centre and the vertical axis of the
instrument can also be measured.
In this manner, the multiplying (f/i) and additive (f + d) constants can be
calculated.
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Determination of tachometer or Stadia Constant
2. Field Measurement:
a) A fairly level ground is selected. The tacheometer is set up at O and pegs are fixed at
A1 A2 and A3 known distances apart.
b) The staff intercepts (stadia hair readings) are noted at each of the pegs.
Let these intercepts be S1, S2 and S3.
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Determination of tachometer or Stadia Constant

c) The horizontal distances of the pegs from O are accurately measured. Let
these distances be D1, D2 and D3.
d) By substituting the values of D1, D2, … and S1, S2, … in the general
equation

e) By solving the equations in

pairs, several values of (f/i) and
(f + d) are
obtained. The mean of these
values gives the required
constant.
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Determination of tachometer or Stadia Constant (example)

Determine the values of stadia constants from the following observations.

Instrument Staff Reading Distance (m) Stadia Readings

Station on Lower Upper

A 150 1.255 2.750

O
B 200 1.000 3.000
C 250 0.750 3.255
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ANALLATIC LENS—OBJECT
 An additional convex lens is provided between the eyepiece and the object glass at a
fixed distance from the object glass. This convex lens is known as an anallatic lens.
 The object of providing the anallatic lens in the telescope is
to make the additive constant (f + d) exactly zero.
 Such a lens is provided in the external focussing telescope, and is not
required in the internal focussing telescope.
 The advantage of using this lens is that it simplifies the calculation of
distances and heights, as its presence ensures that there is only one constant, namely the
multiplying constant.
 The distances are directly obtained by multiplying the difference of stadia hair readings
by 100.
 One disadvantage of using the anallatic lens is that the brightness of the
image is much reduced due to absorption of light.
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ANALLATIC LENS—THEORY

 Figure shows an anallatic lens. The notation used is as follows.

S = staff intercept CD1

O = optical centre of object glass
A = optical centre of anallatic lens
V = vertical axis of instrument
P = principal focus of the anallatic lens
f1 and f2 = conjugate focal lengths of
object glass
f = focal length of object glass
f′ = focal length of anallatic lens
K = distance between object glass and
anallatic lens
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ANALLATIC LENS—THEORY

d = distance between optical centre of

object glass and vertical axis of
instrument
m = distance between optical centre of
object glass and real image dc
i = length of real image dc, when
anallatic lens is provided
i′ = length of image d3c3 when
anallatic lens is not provided
D = distance between vertical axis of
instrument and the staff.
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ANALLATIC LENS—THEORY

 The rays of light from C and D1

emanating along CN and DN actually
meet at P after refraction while passing
through the object glass. The distance (K)
is so adjusted that P becomes the principal
focus of the anallatic lens.
 Again, the diverging rays from P will
emerge in a direction parallel to the axis of
the telescope after passing through the
anallatic lens. Thus, a real image, dc, is
formed.
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ANALLATIC LENS—THEORY

 Here, d3c3 represents the image if the

anallatic lens is not provided.
According to the law of lenses,

……… (4)
and

……(5)

 where (m – k) and (f2 – k) together constitute the conjugate focal length of

the anallatic lens. In Eq. (5) the sign is negative as d3c3 and dc are in the
same side of the anallatic lens.
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ANALLATIC LENS—THEORY

Also,

………… (6)

and
………(7)

By solving these four equations and

eliminating m, f2 hand i′, we get
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ANALLATIC LENS—THEORY

Again,

....(8)

The term

should be equal to zero, so that D may be

proportional to S.
Thus,
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ANALLATIC LENS—THEORY

From this we get,

……..(9)
Now, by adopting suitable values of f,
f′, k and i, the expression

is made equal to 100, which is the

multiplying constant of the
instrument.
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METHODS OF TACHEOMETRY
Tacheometry involves mainly two methods:
1. The stadia method
a) The Fixed-Hair Method
b) The Moveable Method
2. The tangential method
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1.The stadia method
 In this method, the diaphragm of the tacheometer is provided with two stadia hairs (upper and
lower). Looking through the telescope the stadia hair readings are taken. The difference in
these readings gives the staff intercept.

 To determine the distance between the station and the staff, the staff
intercept is multiplied by the stadia constant (i.e. multiplying constant, 100).
The stadia method may, in turn, be of two kinds.
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1.The stadia method
(a) The Fixed-Hair Method
 The distance between the stadia hairs is fixed in this method, which is the one commonly
used.
 When the staff is sighted through the telescope, a certain portion of the staff is intercepted by
the upper and lower stadia.
 The value of the staff intercept varies with the distance.
 However, the distance between the station and the staff can be
obtained by multiplying the staff intercept by the stadia constant.
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1.The stadia method
(b) The Moveable-Hair Method
 The stadia hairs are not fixed in this method.
 They can be moved or adjusted by micrometer screws.
 The staff is provided with two targets or vanes a known distance apart.
 During observation, the distance between stadia hairs is so adjusted that the upper hair bisects
the upper target and the lower hair bisects the lower target.
 The variable stadia intercept is measured and the required distance is then computed.
 This method is not generally used.
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2. The Tangential Method
 In this method, the diaphragm of the tacheometer is not provided with stadia
hair.
 The readings are taken by the single horizontal hair.
 The staff consists of two vanes or targets a known distance apart.
 To measure the staff intercept, two pointings are required.
 The angles of elevation or depression are measured and their tangents are used for finding the
horizontal distances and elevations.
 This method is also not generally used.
 The stadia method requires only one observation, but the tangential method requires two
pointings of the telescope.
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Fixed Hair Method
Case I : when line of Sight is Horizontal, and staff is held vertically

 When the line of sight is horizontal, the general tacheometric equation for distance is
given by
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Fixed Hair Method
Case I : when line of Sight is Horizontal, and staff is held vertically

 The multiplying constant (f/i) is 100, and additive constant (f + d) is generally zero.
 RL of staff station P = HI – h

where HI = RL of BM + BS (HI = height of instrument BS = backsight)

h = central hair reading
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Fixed Hair Method
Case II : When Line of Sight is Inclined, but Staff is Held Vertically

(a) Considering Angle of Elevation (Positive)

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Fixed Hair Method
Case II : When Line of Sight is Inclined, but Staff is Held Vertically
(a) Considering Angle of Elevation (Positive)
T = instrument station
T1 = axis of instrument
P = staff station
A, B, C = position of staff cut by hairs
S = AC = staff intercept
h = central hair reading
V = vertical distance between instrument
axis and central hair
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Fixed Hair Method
Case II : When Line of Sight is Inclined, but Staff is Held Vertically
(a) Considering Angle of Elevation (Positive)

D = horizontal distance between

instrument and staff
L = inclined distance between instrument
axis and B
θ = angle of elevation
α = angle made by outer and inner rays
with central ray

A′C′ is drawn perpendicular to the central ray, T1B.

Now, inclined distance, L = (A′C′) + (f + d)
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Fixed Hair Method
Case II : When Line of Sight is Inclined, but Staff is Held Vertically
(a) Considering Angle of Elevation (Positive)
Horizontal distance D = L cos θ

= (A′C′) cos θ + (f + d) cos θ ….(10)

Now A′C′ is to be expressed in
terms of AC (i.e. S)
In Δs ABA′ and CBC′,

∠ABA′ = ∠CBC′ = θ
∠AA′B = 90° + α
∠BC′C = 90 – α The angle α is very small.
∠AA′B and ∠BC′C may be taken equal to 90°.
So AC′ = AC cos θ = S cos θ
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Fixed Hair Method
Case II : When Line of Sight is Inclined, but Staff is Held Vertically
(a) Considering Angle of Elevation (Positive)
From Eq. (10)
D = (Scos θ) cos θ + (f + d) cos θ
∴ D = × S θ + (f + d) cos θ …….(11)
Again, V = L sin θ
=
=
V= ……. (12) Also, V = Dtan θ
RL of staff station P = RL of axis of instrument + V – h …………. (13)
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Fixed Hair Method
Case II : When Line of Sight is Inclined, but Staff is Held Vertically
(b) Considering Angle of Depression (Negative)
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Fixed Hair Method
Case II : When Line of Sight is Inclined, but Staff is Held Vertically
(b) Considering Angle of Depression (Negative)
In this case, the expressions for D and V are same as in (a). That is,
D = × S θ + (f + d) cos θ ...(14)

V= …(15)

RL of staff station, P = RL of axis of instrument – V – h …..(16)

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Fixed Hair Method
Case III Line of Sight Inclined, but Staff Normal to it
(a) Considering Angle of Elevation (Positive)
AC = staff intercept (S)
θ = angle of elevation
BP = h (central hair reading)
= L (inclined distance)
Vertical height of central hair = h cos θ
Horizontal distance between T and B = L cos θ
Horizontal distance = h sin θ
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Fixed Hair Method
Case III Line of Sight Inclined, but Staff Normal to it
(a) Considering Angle of Elevation (Positive)
Since the staff is perpendicular to the line of collimation,
L= x S + (f + d)
Horizontal distance D = Lcos θ + hsin θ

Vertical distance V = L sin θ

=……….(18)

RL of staff station P = RL of instrument axis + V – hcos θ ….. (19)

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Fixed Hair Method
Case III Line of Sight Inclined, but Staff Normal to it
(b) Considering Angle of depression (Negative)
According to this,

horizontal distance,

D = L cos θ – h sin θ
Again,

L = × S + (f + d)
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Fixed Hair Method
Case III Line of Sight Inclined, but Staff Normal to it
(b) Considering Angle of depression (Negative)
∴ D = × S × cos θ + (f + d) cos θ – h sin θ ….. (20)

Vertical distance,

V = L sin θ

∴ V = × S sin θ + (f + d) sin θ… (21)

RL of P = RL of instrument axis – V – h cos θ ………….(22)

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THE Moveable-Hair Method
 In this method, the staff intercept is kept
constant, but the distance between
the stadia wires is variable.
 The staff is provided with two targets a known
distance apart and a third target in the middle.
 The theodolite is provided with a special type of
diaphragm shown
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THE Moveable-Hair Method
 This type of theodolite is known as subtense theodolite.
 The diaphragm consists of a central wire fixed with the axis of the telescope.
 The upper and lower stadia wires can be moved by micrometer screws in a vertical plane.
 The distance by which the stadia wires are moved is measured according to the number of turns
of the micrometer screws.
 The number of complete turns is read on the scale, and the fractional parts are read on the drum
of the micrometer screws provided one above and one below the eyepiece.
 The sum of the micrometer readings is taken in order to obtain the total distance moved by the
stadia wires.
 For taking the observation, the middle target is first bisected by the central wire.
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THE Moveable-Hair Method
 Then the micrometer screws are simultaneously turned to move the stadia wires until the upper
and lower targets are bisected.
 When the line of sight is horizontal, the distance is given by

 where C = constant varying from 600 to 1,000

n = sum of the readings in the micrometer
S = staff intercept (distance between targets)
 When the line of sight is inclined, the distance is calculated by a formula
similar to the one used for the fixed hair method, namely
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THE TANGENTIAL METHOD OF TACHEOMETRY
 This method is used when the theodolite is a simple transit type and does not carry a stadia
diaphragm.
 The staff consists of two vanes or targets a known distance apart.
 The angles of elevation or depression of the targets are measured by theodolite.
 The horizontal and vertical distances are computed.
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THE TANGENTIAL METHOD OF TACHEOMETRY
Case I When Both Angles of Target are Angles of Elevation
T = instrument station
T1= instrument axis
A = staff station
V = vertical distance between lower vane and axis of instrument
S = distance between targets
θ1 = vertical angle made by upper target
θ2 = vertical angle made by lower target
h = height of lower vane above the staff station
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THE TANGENTIAL METHOD OF TACHEOMETRY
Case I When Both Angles of Target are Angles of Elevation
From the figure,
V + S = D tan
and V = D tan
∴ S = D(tan – tan )

…… (23)

V= …… (24)

RL of A = RL of instrument axis + V – h
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THE TANGENTIAL METHOD OF TACHEOMETRY
Case II When Both Angles of Target are Angles of Depression
In such a situation, the staff is
held vertically.
The notation used is the same
as in Case I.
V = D tan

and V – S = Dtan

∴ S = D(tan – tan )

…… (25) V= ……(26)
RL of A = RL of instrument axis – V – h
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THE TANGENTIAL METHOD OF TACHEOMETRY
Case III When One Angle is that of Elevation and the Other that of Depression

 The staff is held vertically.

 θ1 is indicated by a positive
sign (angle of elevation)
 θ2 is by a negative sign (angle
of depression).
 The notations used in the
same as in Case I.
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THE TANGENTIAL METHOD OF TACHEOMETRY
Case III When One Angle is that of Elevation and the Other that of Depression

V = D tan
and S – V = D tan

S = D(tan + tan )

…… (27)

and V = D tan = ……..(28) RL of A = RL of instrument axis – V – h

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THE TANGENTIAL METHOD OF TACHEOMETRY
 The only advantage of the moveable hair method is that the survey can be conducted by ordinary
transit theodolite, which does not carry a stadia diaphragm.
 The disadvantages are as follows:
1. Two vertical angles are to be measured in each observation; hence, this method requires
comparatively more time.
2. During the interval between the measurement of angles, the theodolite may be disturbed; this
may cause wastage of time.
3. This method is very tedious.
Note:
(1) The most common method used nowadays is the fixed-hair method with the staff held vertically.
(2) The moveable hair and tangential methods are not generally adopted
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54 FIELD WORK IN TACHEOMETRY

 A tacheometric survey is conducted mainly for preparing a contour map and

for filling interior details in undulating areas where direct chaining is very
difficult.
 By means of a tacheometer the relative distances and RLs of
different points can be computed from the instrument station.
 Such survey is suitable for alignment of highways or railways or for preparing the contour map of
a reservoir.
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55 FIELD WORK IN TACHEOMETRY (Procedure)

1. Reconnaissance: Before starting the work, the area to be surveyed is thoroughly examined and the
instrument stations are selected according to the nature of the area. If the survey is conducted
along a narrow belt, the stations are selected along the centre line of the belt. If the area is
comparatively broad, it is to be enclosed by a closed traverse. If the area is very extensive, it is
divided into a number of well-conditioned triangles. It should be remembered that every
instrument station should command a wide area.
2. The tacheometer is set up at the starting station. It is centered and levelled
with respect to the plate bubble and altitude bubble. The height of the
instrument (i.e., the vertical distance from the top of the station peg to the
centre of the object glass) is measured by levelling staff or stadia rod,
looking through the object glass or by any suitable means.
3. The instrument is oriented with reference to any pre-determined station by
taking its magnetic bearing, or by any other means.
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56 FIELD WORK IN TACHEOMETRY (Procedure)

4. A back sight reading is taken on a nearby benchmark, if available. If not, fly levelling should be
done to connect the distant benchmark to the instrument station in order to know the RL of the
starting station.
5. The nearby objects or points are demarcated. The magnetic bearings of all of them are measured
and noted. The vertical angles are measured with respect to the central horizontal hair. Then three
readings on the staff are taken—one for collimation hair and the other two for the upper and lower
stadia. These observations are known as side shots. The readings are entered in a tacheometric
field book as shown.

Inst. Height of Staff WCB Vertical Hair Reading Remarks

Station Station Station Angle Top Centre Bottom
6. Then the tacheometer is directed to the second station, and its magnetic
bearing is measured. The vertical angle and three readings on the staff are
noted and recorded in the field book.
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57 FIELD WORK IN TACHEOMETRY (Procedure)

7. Similarly, all the traverse stations are connected and the necessary observations for all the objects
are taken from each station and recorded clearly in the field book.
8. From the field book, the distances of the objects from the instrument stations are computed, and
the respective RLs of all the points are calculated. A separate table is prepared for the purpose of
plotting.
9. The points are plotted on the map according to any suitable scale, and RLs of the respective
points are noted by taking the distances and RLs from the prepared table. Then the contour lines
may be drawn by the method of interpolation.

Inst. Staff WCB Horizontal Vertical RL Remarks

Station Station Distance Distance
Inst. Axis Staff Station