Lecture 5

Lecture Notes 5: Geomagnetic Methods
Dr. Jonathan Atuquaye Quaye

Department of Petroleum Engineering
College of Engineering
KNUST, Kumasi.
Email: jaquaye@knust.edu.gh
Geomagnetic Methods
 Introduction
 It is thought that the Chinese first used lodestone (magnetite-rich rock) in
primitive direction-finding as early as the second century BC.
 It was not until the twelfth century in Europe that reference was made to
the use of a magnetic compass for navigation.
 The first scientific analysis of the Earth’s magnetic field and associated
phenomena was published by the English physicist William Gilbert in
 1600 in his book De Magnete. Measurements of variations in the Earth’s

magnetic field were made in Sweden to locate iron ore deposits as early as
1640.
Geomagnetic Methods
 In 1870, Thalen and Tiberg developed instruments to measure various
components of the Earth’s magnetic field accurately and quickly for
 routine prospecting. In 1915, Adolf Schmidt made a balance

magnetometer that enabled more widespread magnetic surveys to be
 undertaken. As with many geophysical methods, advances in technology

were made during the Second World War which enabled more efficient,
 reliable and accurate measurements to be made thereafter. In the 1960s,

optical absorption magnetometers were developed which provided the
Geomagnetic Methods
 means for extremely rapid magnetic measurements with very high
sensitivity, ideally suited to airborne magnetic surveys.
 Since the early 1970s,magnetic gradiometers have been used which

measure not only the total Earth’s magnetic field intensity, but also the
 magnetic gradient between sensors. This provides extra information of

sufficient resolution to be invaluable in delimiting geological targets.
 Geomagnetic methods can be used in a wide variety of applications and

range from small-scale investigations to locate pipes and cables in the very
Geomagnetic Methods
 near surface, and engineering site investigations, through to large-scale
regional geological mapping to determine gross structure, such as in
 hydrocarbon exploration. Commonly in the larger exploration

investigations, both magnetic and gravity methods are used to
 complement each other. Used together prior to seismic surveys, they can
provide more information about the subsurface, particularly the basement
rocks, than either technique on its own.
 Subsequent seismic reflection surveys are then used to provide more

detailed imaging of the subsurface, which is of more value to hydrocarbon
exploration.
Geomagnetic Methods
 The range of magnetic measurements that can now be made is extremely
large, especially in the area of palaeomagnetism, which will not be dealt
with here.
Geomagnetic Methods
Applications of geomagnetic surveys.

Basic concepts and units of geomagnetism
 FLUX DENSITY, FIELD STRENGTH AND PERMEABILITY
 Around a bar magnet, a magnetic flux exists, as indicated by the flux lines in
the next figure, and converges near the ends of the magnet,
 which are known as the magnetic poles. If such a bar magnet is suspended
in free air, the magnet will align itself with the Earth’s magnetic field with
 one pole (the positive north-seeking) pointing towards the Earth’s north
pole and the other (the negative south-seeking) towards the south
magnetic pole.
 Magnetic poles always exist in pairs of opposite sense to form a dipole.

When one pole is sufficiently far removed from the other so that it no
 longer affects it, the single pole is referred to as a monopole.
 If two magnetic poles of strength m1 and m2 are separated by a distance r,

a force exists between them.
Figure 2: Force between two magnetic poles.

Figure 1: Lines of magnetic flux around a bar magnet.

 If the poles are of the same sort, the force will push the poles apart, and if
they are of opposite polarity, the force is attractive and will draw the poles
 towards each other.
 Both gravity and magnetism are potential fields and can be described by
comparable potential field theory.
 The closeness of the flux lines as shown in the previous figure, the flux per
unit area, is the flux density B (and is measured in weber/m2 = teslas).
 B, which is also called the ‘magnetic induction’, is a vector quantity (the
former c.g.s. units of flux density were gauss, equivalent to 10−4 T.)
 The units of teslas are too large to be practical in geophysical work, so a

subunit called the nanotesla (nT = 10−9 T) is used instead, where 1 nT is
 numerically equivalent to 1 gamma in c.g.s. units (1 nT is equivalent to

10−5 gauss).
 The magnetic field can also be defined in terms of a force field which is
produced by electric currents.
 This magnetizing field strength H is defined, following Biot-Savart’s Law, as
being the field strength at the centre of a loop of wire of radius r through
 which a current is flowing such that H = 1/2r. Consequently the units of the
magnetizing field strength H are amperes per meter (A/m).
 The ratio of the flux density B to the magnetizing field strength is a constant
called the absolute magnetic permeability (μ).
 Practically, the magnetic permeability of water and air can be taken to be

equal to the magnetic permeability of free space (a vacuum), denoted μ0
which has the value 4π x 10−7 Wb A−1 m−1.
 For any medium other than a vacuum, the ratio of the permeabilities of a
medium to that of free space is equal to the relative permeability μr, such
that μr = μ/μ0 and, as it is a ratio, it has no units.
Figure 3: Relationship between magnetic flux density B, magnetizing force H, and susceptibility.
 Susceptibility
 It is possible to express the relationship between B and H in terms of a
geologically diagnostic parameter, the magnetic susceptibility κ.
 Susceptibility is in essence a measure of how susceptible a material is to

becoming magnetized. For a vacuum, μr = 1 and κ = 0.
 Although susceptibility has no units, to rationalize its numerical value to be

compatible with the SI or rationalized system of units, the value in c.g.s.
 equivalent units (e.g. unrationalized units such as e.m.u., electromagnetic

units) should be multiplied by 4π. Some materials have negative
susceptibilities.
 Intensity of magnetization
 From the last expressions given in figure 3, it is clear that for a vacuum, B =
μ0H (as κ = 0).
 The penultimate expression indicates that in a medium other than a

vacuum, an extra magnetizing field strength of κH, called the intensity of
magnetization J, is induced by the magnetizing force, H.
Schematic of a uniformly magnetized bar magnet as a collection of aligned dipoles producing a

pole strength and a series of minor bar magnets.
 Induced and remanent magnetization
 So far the discussion has centered upon a magnetization that is induced by
an applied field H(same as magnetizing force) where the induced intensity
 of magnetization is denoted by Ji. In many cases, in the absence of an

applied field (H), there is still a measurable intensity of magnetization
 which is sustained by the internal field strength due to permanently

magnetic particles. The intensity of this permanent or remanent
 magnetization is denoted by Jr. A rock mass containing magnetic minerals

will have an induced as well as a remanent magnetization.
 These magnetizations may have different directions and magnitudes of
intensity.
 The magnitude and orientation of the resultant J dictate both the

amplitude and shape of a magnetic anomaly, respectively.
 Consequently, interpretation of magnetic data is complicated by having

greater degrees of freedom of the magnetic parameters and physical
 properties compared with gravity, which is largely dependent upon only

rock density.
Vectorial summation of induced and remanent intensities of magnetization.

Magnetic Properties of Rocks
 Susceptibility of rocks and minerals
 Magnetic susceptibility is an extremely important property of rocks, and is
to magnetic exploration methods what density is to gravity surveys.
 Rocks that have a significant concentration of ferro- and/or ferrimagnetic

minerals tend to have the highest susceptibilities.
 Consequently, basic and ultrabasic rocks have the highest susceptibilities,

acidic igneous and metamorphic rocks have intermediate to low values, and
sedimentary rocks have very low susceptibilities in general.
 In this compilation of data, specific details of rock types are not available
and so the values cited should be taken only as a guide.
 Metamorphic rocks are dependent upon their parent material, and
metapsammites are likely to have different susceptibilities compared with
 metapelites, for example. Whole rock susceptibilities can vary considerably

owing to a number of factors in addition to mineralogical composition.
 Susceptibilities depend upon the alignment and shape of the magnetic

grains dispersed throughout the rock.
 If there is a marked orientation of particles, such as in some sedimentary

and metamorphic rocks, a strong physical anisotropy may exist.
 The variation of magnetic properties as a function of orientation and shape
of mineral grains is known as the magnetic fabric.
 Magnetic fabric analysis provides a very sensitive indication as to the

physical composition of a rock or sediment, which in turn can be important
 in interpreting physical processes affecting that rock.

Susceptibilities of major rock types.

Susceptibilities of rock and minerals (rationalized SI units).

Susceptibilities of rock and minerals (rationalized SI units).

Types of remanent magnetization.

Time Variable Field
 Observations of the Earth’s magnetic field have been made for over four
centuries at London and Paris. From these data, it is clear that the
 geomagnetic and magnetic pole positions drift with time, known as the
secular variation in the magnetic field. In addition, the intensity of the main
 magnetic field is decreasing at about 5% per century. These rates of

change, although very significant on a geological timescale, do not affect
data acquisition on a typical exploration survey unless it covers large
 geographical areas and takes many months to complete, or if such surveys

are being used to compare with historical data.
Time Variable Field
 Abrupt changes in the trend of the secular variation in the geomagnetic
field over short periods of time (less than four years), known as
 geomagnetic jerks, have been modelled and observed.
 They are thought to be due to a change in the fluid flow at the surface of
the Earth’s core, although their physical origin is still not understood.
 The Earth’s magnetic field changes over a daily period, the diurnal
variations. These are caused by changes in the strength and direction of
Time Variable Field
 currents in the ionosphere. On a magnetically ‘quiet’ (Q) day, the changes
are smooth and are on average around 50 nT, but with
 amplitudes up to 200 nT at the geomagnetic equator. The changes are least

during the night when the background is almost constant, and decrease in
 amplitude from dawn to midday, whereupon they increase to the daily

maximum about mid–late afternoon before settling down to the night-time
value.
 Magnetically disturbed (D) days are marked by a rapid onset of fluctuations

of the order of hundreds of nanoteslas followed by slower but still erratic
fluctuations with decreasing amplitude.
Time Variable Field
 These disturbances, which are called magnetic storms, may persist for
several hours or even days. Such frenetic magnetic activity is caused by
 sunspot and solar activity resulting in solar-charged particles entering the

ionosphere. This may happen on fine sunny days and not necessarily in
 stormy weather. Magnetic observatories around the world provide an

advance warning service to advise of the probability of magnetic storm
 activity. In severe storms, all magnetic surveying has to stop as it is not

practicable to correct for such extreme fluctuations.
Time Variable Field
 In minor disturbances, if a continuous-reading base station magnetometer
is used, the diurnal variations can be corrected.
 In aeromagnetic surveys, it is necessary to specify contractually what

constitutes a magnetic storm.
 Survey data adversely affected by magnetic disturbances may have to be re-

flown, and this obviously has cost implications.
Magnetic Instruments
 The earliest known device which responded to the Earth’s magnetic field
was a magnetized spoon used by Chinese geomancers (diviners) in the first
 century AD. Compass needles were introduced for navigation around the
year 1000 in China, and in Europe about 200 years later.
 The first accurate measurement of the inclination of the Earth’s field was
made at Radcliffe in London in 1576 by Robert Norman.
 He described his instruments and collected data in his book The Newe
Attractive (1581), which was the first book ever to be devoted to
geomagnetism.
Magnetic Instruments
 Magnetometers used specifically in geophysical exploration can be
classified into three groups: the torsion (and balance), fluxgate and
 resonance types, of which the last two have now completely superseded
the first.
 Torsion magnetometers are still in use at 75% of geomagnetic

observatories, particularly for the measurement of declination.
 Magnetometers measure horizontal and/or vertical components of the

magnetic field (Fh and Fz respectively) or the total field Ft.
Fluxgate Magnetometers
 The fluxgate magnetometer was developed during the Second World War
to detect submarines.
 It consists of two parallel cores made out of high-permeability

ferromagnetic material. Primary coils are wound around these cores in
 series but in opposite directions. Secondary coils are also wound around
the cores but in the opposite sense to the respective primary coil.
 A current alternating at 50–1000 Hz is passed through the primary coils

which drives each core through a B-H hysteresis loop to saturation at every
 half-cycle in the absence of an external field, so inducing a magnetic field
in each core. The generated alternating magnetic field induces an in-phase
 voltage within the secondary coils. This voltage reaches its maximum when
the rate of change of the magnetic field is fastest. As the coils are
 wound in opposing directions around the two cores, the secondary

voltages are in phase but have opposite polarity so that the sum of the two
voltages is at all times zero.
 However, when the cores are placed in the Earth’s magnetic field, a
component of that field will be parallel to the orientation of the cores.
 Consequently, the core whose primary field is reinforced by the ambient
external field will reach saturation earlier than the other core whose
 magnetic field is opposed by the external field. This has the effect of
shifting the phases of the secondary voltages so that the sum of the two
 secondary voltages is now non−zero.
 The peak amplitude of the pulsed output of the combined secondary coils
is proportional to the magnitude of the external field component.
Basic operating principle of the fluxgate magnetometer.

 The fluxgate magnetometer can be used to measure specific magnetic
components with the same attitude as the sensor cores.
 the fluxgate magnetometer is relatively insensitive to magnetic field

gradients, it has the advantage that it can be used in areas where very
 steep gradients would militate against the use of resonance-type devices,

which are affected. Some portable fluxgate magnetometers suffer from
 temperature effects owing to inadequate thermal insulation, which can

reduce the resolution to only ±10 to 20 nT, this being inadequate for
ground exploration surveys.
 They are used quite widely in airborne surveys where better thermal
insulation can be ensured and additional devices can be used to aid the
 consistent orientation of the sensor cores. In such cases, accuracy to

within±1 nT can be achieved. In addition, fluxgate instruments can provide
 a continuous output which is another advantage for airborne applications.

Fluxgate magnetometers can also be used in downhole logging applications
 in mineral exploration and as dual gradiometers in archaeological

investigations, such as those manufactured by Bartington Instruments.

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Lecture Notes 5: Geomagnetic Methods

Dr. Jonathan Atuquaye Quaye

 1600 in his book De Magnete. Measurements of variations in the Earth’s

 routine prospecting. In 1915, Adolf Schmidt made a balance

 undertaken. As with many geophysical methods, advances in technology

 reliable and accurate measurements to be made thereafter. In the 1960s,

 Since the early 1970s,magnetic gradiometers have been used which

 magnetic gradient between sensors. This provides extra information of

 Geomagnetic methods can be used in a wide variety of applications and

 hydrocarbon exploration. Commonly in the larger exploration

 Subsequent seismic reflection surveys are then used to provide more

Applications of geomagnetic surveys.

 Magnetic poles always exist in pairs of opposite sense to form a dipole.

 If two magnetic poles of strength m1 and m2 are separated by a distance r,

Figure 2: Force between two magnetic poles.

Figure 1: Lines of magnetic flux around a bar magnet.

 towards each other.

 The units of teslas are too large to be practical in geophysical work, so a

 numerically equivalent to 1 gamma in c.g.s. units (1 nT is equivalent to

 Practically, the magnetic permeability of water and air can be taken to be

 Susceptibility is in essence a measure of how susceptible a material is to

 Although susceptibility has no units, to rationalize its numerical value to be

 equivalent units (e.g. unrationalized units such as e.m.u., electromagnetic

 The penultimate expression indicates that in a medium other than a

Schematic of a uniformly magnetized bar magnet as a collection of aligned dipoles producing a

 of magnetization is denoted by Ji. In many cases, in the absence of an

 which is sustained by the internal field strength due to permanently

 magnetization is denoted by Jr. A rock mass containing magnetic minerals

 The magnitude and orientation of the resultant J dictate both the

 Consequently, interpretation of magnetic data is complicated by having

 properties compared with gravity, which is largely dependent upon only

Vectorial summation of induced and remanent intensities of magnetization.

 Rocks that have a significant concentration of ferro- and/or ferrimagnetic

 Consequently, basic and ultrabasic rocks have the highest susceptibilities,

 metapelites, for example. Whole rock susceptibilities can vary considerably

 Susceptibilities depend upon the alignment and shape of the magnetic

 If there is a marked orientation of particles, such as in some sedimentary

 Magnetic fabric analysis provides a very sensitive indication as to the

 in interpreting physical processes affecting that rock.

Susceptibilities of major rock types.

Susceptibilities of rock and minerals (rationalized SI units).

Susceptibilities of rock and minerals (rationalized SI units).

Types of remanent magnetization.

 magnetic field is decreasing at about 5% per century. These rates of

 geographical areas and takes many months to complete, or if such surveys

 geomagnetic jerks, have been modelled and observed.

 amplitudes up to 200 nT at the geomagnetic equator. The changes are least

 amplitude from dawn to midday, whereupon they increase to the daily

 Magnetically disturbed (D) days are marked by a rapid onset of fluctuations

 sunspot and solar activity resulting in solar-charged particles entering the

 stormy weather. Magnetic observatories around the world provide an

 activity. In severe storms, all magnetic surveying has to stop as it is not

 In aeromagnetic surveys, it is necessary to specify contractually what

 Survey data adversely affected by magnetic disturbances may have to be re-

 Torsion magnetometers are still in use at 75% of geomagnetic

 Magnetometers measure horizontal and/or vertical components of the

 It consists of two parallel cores made out of high-permeability

 A current alternating at 50–1000 Hz is passed through the primary coils

 wound in opposing directions around the two cores, the secondary

 secondary voltages is now non−zero.