LINEAR CONTROL SYSTEM

COURSE OBJECTIVES
• To learn the mathematical modeling of physical systems and to use block
diagram algebra and signal flow graph to determine overall transfer function .

• To analyze the time response of first and second order systems and improvement
of performance using PI, PD, PID controllers.

• To investigate the stability of closed loop systems using Routh’s stability

criterion and root locus method.

• To understand basic aspects of design and compensation of LTI systems using

Bode diagrams.

• To learn Frequency Response approaches for the analysis of LTI systems using
Bode plots, polar plots and Nyquist stability criterion.

• To learn state space approach for analysis of LTI systems and understand the
concepts of controllability and observability.
UNIT I -Mathematical Modelling of Control Systems:

Classification of control systems - open loop and closed loop control systems and their
differences - Feedback characteristics - transfer function of linear system, differential
equations of electrical networkstranslational and rotational mechanical systems - transfer
function of Armature voltage controlled DC servo motor - block diagram algebra - signal
flow graph – reduction using Mason’s gain formula.

UNIT II – Time Response Analysis and Controllers:

Standard test signals – time response of first and second order systems – time domain
specifications - steady state errors and error constants - effects of proportional (P) -
proportional integral (PI) - proportional derivative (PD) - proportional integral derivative
(PID) systems.

Stability Assessment Techniques:

The concept of stability – Routh’s stability criterion – limitations of Routh’s stability,

root locus concept – construction of root loci (simple problems) - Effect of addition of
Poles and Zeros to the transfer function.
UNIT III-Frequency Response Analysis:

Introduction to frequency domain specifications – Bode diagrams – transfer function

from the Bode diagram –Polar plots, Nyquist stability criterion- stability analysis
using Bode plots (phase margin and gain margin).

UNIT–IV Classical Control Design Techniques:

Lag, lead, lag-lead compensators - physical realisation - design of compensators

using Bode plots.

UNIT–V State Space Analysis of Linear Time Invariant (LTI) Systems:

Concepts of state - state variables and state model - state space representation of
transfer function - diagonalization using linear transformation - solving the time
invariant state equations - State Transition Matrix and its properties- concepts of
controllability and observability.
Text Books:
1. Modern Control Engineering by Kotsuhiko Ogata, Prentice Hall of India
2. Automatic control systems by Benjamin C.Kuo, Prentice Hall of India, 2nd Edition.
Reference Books:
1. Control Systems principles and design by M.Gopal, Tata Mc Graw Hill education Pvt
Ltd., 4th Edition.
2. Control Systems Engineering by Norman S. Nise, Wiley Publications, 7th edition
3. Control Systems by Manik Dhanesh N, Cengage publications.
4. Control Systems Engineering by I.J.Nagarath and M.Gopal, Newage International
Publications, 5th Edition.
Course Outcome:
After the completion of the course the student should be able to:
• Derive the transfer function of physical systems and determination of overall transfer
function using block diagram algebra and signal flow graphs.
• Determine time response specifications of second order systems and absolute and
relative stability of LTI systems using Routh’s stability criterion and root locus method.
• Analyze the stability of LTI systems using frequency response methods.
• Design Lag, Lead, Lag-Lead compensators to improve system performance using Bode
diagrams.
• Represent physical systems as state models and determine the response. Understand the
concepts of controllability and observability.
• A system whose output is proportional to its input is an example
of a linear system.
• it also implies the additivity property: that is, if several inputs
are acting on a system, then the total effect on the system due to
all these inputs can be determined by considering one input at a
time while assuming all the other inputs to be zero.
• The total effect is then the sum of all the component effects. This
property may be expressed as follows:
• for a linear system, if an input x1 acting alone has an effect y1,

and if another input x2, also acting alone, has an effect y2, then,

with both inputs acting on the system, the total effect will be y 1 +
In addition, a linear system must satisfy
the homogeneity or scaling property,
which states that for arbitrary real or
imaginary number k, if an input is
increased k-fold, the effect also increases
k-fold. Thus, if

Thus, linearity implies two properties:

homogeneity (scaling) and additivity.Both
these properties can be combined into one
property (superposition), which is expressed as
follows:
Routh test stability Limitations:
1. The test is limited to systems that have polynomial characteristic
equations. This means that it cannot be used to test the stability of
a control system containing a transportation lag.
2.  It gives only information about absolute stability of the system.
The degree of stability of a stable system cannot be obtained
3. The Criterion can be applied only if the characteristic equation
has constant coefficients and cannot be applied if they are not real
or contain exponential terms as in the case of systems with dead
time.
Advantages of Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
• It offers an easy method of predicting the system’s stability without
completely solving the characteristic equation.
• In case, the system is unstable then we can easily get the number of
roots of the characteristic equation that has a positive real part.
• The time to calculate determinants is saved by the Routh-Hurwitz
criterion.
• By using this we can get the range of values of K.
• It provides ease of determining the relative stability of the system.
Disadvantages of Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
• It determines the stability but does not offer the method to stabilize
an unstable system.
• This method suits checking the stability of only linear systems.
• The accurate position of the closed-loop poles in the s-plane is not
determined.
• It is applicable only when there is a characteristic equation having
real coefficients.
Sketch the root loci of the control system shown in Figure
• The open-loop poles are located at s = 0, s = -3 + j4, and s = -3 - j4.
• A root locus branch exists on the real axis between the origin and -∞.
• There are three asymptotes for the root 1oci.
• The angles of asymptotes are

= 600, 1800 -600,

n=3,m=0,q=0,1,2

• the intersection of the asymptotes and the real axis is obtained as

The angle of departure from the complex pole in the upper half s plane is
The points where root-locus branches cross the imaginary axis may be found by
substituting s = jꞶ into the characteristic equation and solving the equation for Ꞷ and K
as follows:

Noting that the characteristic equation is we have which yields Root-locus branches cross
the imaginary axis at Ꞷ = 5 and Ꞷ = -5.
The value of gain K at the crossing points is 150. Also, the root-locus branch on the real
axis touches the imaginary axis at w = 0..
• It is noted that if the order of the numerator of G(s)H(s) is lower than that of the
denominator by two or more, and if some of the closed-loop poles move on the root
locus toward the right as gain K is increased, then other closed-loop poles must
move toward the left as gain K is increased.This fact can be seen clearly in this
problem.
• If the gain K is increased from K = 34 to K = 68, the complex-conjugate closed-loop
poles are moved from s = -2 + 13.65 to s = -1 + j4: the third pole is moved from s =
-2 (which corresponds to K = 34) to s = -4 (which corresponds to K = 68).
• Thus, the movements of two complex-conjugate closed-loop poles to the right by
one unit cause the remaining closed-loop pole (real pole in this case) to move to the
left by two units
The following are the six different types of controllers:
Proportional (P) Controller
Integral (I) Controller
Derivative (D) Controller
Proportional Integral (P-I) Controller
Proportional derivative (P-D) Controller
Proportional Integral Derivative (P-I-D) Controller
 PID Controllers
• PID control consists of a proportional plus derivative (PD) compensator
cascaded with a proportional plus integral (PI) compensator.

• The purpose of the PD compensator is to improve the transient response

while maintaining the stability.

• The purpose of the PI compensator is to improve the steady state accuracy

of the system without degrading the stability.

• Since speed of response, accuracy, and stability are what is needed for
satisfactory response, cascading PD and PI will suffice.

388
 The Characteristics of P, I, and D Controllers
Note that these correlations may not be exactly accurate, because Kp, Ki, and Kd are dependent of each other.
In fact, changing one of these variables can change the effect of the other two. For this reason, the table should
only be used as a reference when you are determining the values for Ki, Kp and Kd.

Response Rise Time Overshoot Settling SS Error

Time
Small
KP Decrease Increase Change Decrease

KI Decrease Increase Increase Eliminate

Small Small
KD Change Decrease Decrease Change

389
 The Simplest form of compensation is gain compensation

R
+ Gc Gp

390
 What are compensation techniques?

 The compensation techniques are the methods that are

employed in the electrical control systems to enhance the
performance of the system.
• The performance are generally affected by the factors like lag
in the compensating devices, slow response of the system of
the components like sensors used in the control system.
• The basic compensation technique involves lag compensation,
lead compensation or the combination of the both.
 Principle of compensation techniques

• During run-time, the compensators improve performance (i.e.,

dynamic and steady-state states) characteristics.
• The method of compensation changes depending on the plant.
The compensator could be a device or network; that is
electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, or any other type.
• An electric network serves as a compensator in most control
systems or circuits. Lead, lag, and velocity-feedback
(tachometer) compensators are among the different
compensators used.
 Network of compensation techniques

• The compensating network adds more poles/zeros to the

original system, causing the transfer function to change.
• The sinusoidal angle of a network's sinusoidal output is a
function of the total input frequency if it has a phase lead (or
lag) compared to the input frequency.
• Both phase lag and phase lead are present in the output of
the lag-lead network, but in separate frequency regions, i.e.,
phase lead is present in the high-frequency zone while phase lag
is present in the low-frequency region.
.
• The following diagram depicts the compensation techniques or
methods that have been employed for the feedback control
system/circuit
Lead compensator

• It is used to enhance the circuit's transient state characteristics,

i.e., the speed content with which the system acknowledges.
• In this case, zero has the upper hand over a pole. As a result,
adding a lead compensator into a circuit transfer function has
the effect of adding a zero.
 Lag compensator

• It is used to improve the system's steady-state response

characteristics, i.e., to eliminate the system's steady-state error.
• In this case, dominant pole compensation has the upper hand over
zero. As a result, adding a lag compensator with the
system/circuit transfer function has the effect of adding a pole.
Lag-Lead compensator
• It is utilized to improve the system's transient and steady-state
properties.                                                                        
• One capacitor is parallel with the resistor, and the other is in
series with the other resistor.
• Its frequency response compensation shows simultaneously lead
and lag compensator features.
• A lag-lead compensator is emloyed if one wants the effect of
both lag and lead compensators simultaneously.
 Comparison between lead and lag compensators

Phase lead compensator

It boosts transient phase response time.
It improves the system's dynamic reaction.
There was no discernible reduction in steady-state inaccuracy.
It shortens the time it would take to rise.
It expands the available bandwidth.
It improves the margin of stability, making the system more stable.
The output signal's high-frequency noise increases or the SNR falls.
It can't be used when the uncompensated system's phase angle
quickly grows near the crossover frequency.
Phase lag compensator
It improves steady-state performance and slows down the system's
dynamic reaction.
It lowers steady-state error.
It lengthens the time it takes to ascend.
It reduces the available bandwidth.
It decreases the margin of stability, making the system less stable.
The output signal's high-frequency noise diminishes or the SNR rises.
It cannot be used if the phase angle of the uncompensated system in
the low-frequency band is insufficient to give the required phase
margin.
Uses of compensators
These are used in various industrial controllers. An automatic
control system/circuit employs a control action to keep its output
within acceptable bounds. An error detector detects any departure
in the output from the reference input. The discovered error is used
as an actuation signal for controlling action via a controller.
Root Locus for Simple Gain Compensator

Im(s)

0.5

-1 Re (s)
0.5

402
 Lead/Lag Compensation
• Lead/Lag compensation is very similar to PD/PI, or PID control.

• The lead compensator plays the same role as the PD controller, reshaping
the root locus to improve the transient response.

• Lag and PI compensation are similar and have the same response: to
improve the steady state accuracy of the closed-loop system.

• Both PID and lead/lag compensation can be used successfully, and can be
combined.

403
 Lead Compensation Techniques Based on the Root-Locus Approach

• From the performance specifications, determine the desired location for the
dominant closed-loop poles.

• By drawing the root-locus plot of the uncompensated system ascertain whether or

not the gain adjustment alone can yield the desired closed-loop poles. If not
calculate the angle deficiency. This angle must be contributed by the lead
compensator.

• If the compensator is required, place the zero of the phase lead network directly
below the desired root location.
• Determine the pole location so that the total angle at the desired root location is
180o and therefore is in the compensated root locus.

• Assume the transfer function of the lead compensator.

• Determine the open-loop gain of the compensated system from the magnitude
conditions.

404
 Lead Compensator using the Root Locus

p

s = -p = -3.6 -1

K K
GH ( s )  1 ;1  GH ( s)  1  1  0 : The root locus is in the jω axis
s2 s2
sz
We desire to compensate this system with a network, Gc ( s ) 
s p
4
Ts  4s; P.O  35%;  should be  0.32;Ts   4; n  1
n
We will choose a desired dominant root location as r1,rˆ1  -1  j 2
We place the zero of the compensator directly below the desired location at s  - z  -1
s 1
  -2 116  90  -142o ;180o  142   p ; p  38o ; Gc ( s ) 
s  3.6
K1 ( s  1) (2.23) 2 (3.25)
GH ( s )Gc ( s )  ; K1   8.1
2 2
s ( s  3.6) 405
 Adding Lead Compensation
The lead compensator has the same purpose as the PD compensator: to improve
the transient response of the closed-loop system by reshaping the root locus. The
lead compensator consists of a zero and a pole with the zero closer to the origin
of the s plane than the pole. The zero reshapes a portion of the root locus to
achieve the desired transient response. The pole is placed far enough to the left
that it does not have much influence of the portion influenced by the zero.

10
Consider G p 
s( s  1)
Design Specifications : P.O  20%; t p  1.0s
To achieve the desired tp, we place the closed - loop poles at s  - 3  j 3.
  1/ 2 ; Expect P.O to be 5%; The general formular for the compensator is
K (s  a)
Gc(s)  c ;0 a b
sb
Gc ( s)G p ( s) s  3 j 3  180

406
 Root Locus for Simple Gain Compensator

Im(s)

3
Closed-loop poles

-3 Re (s)

407
 s
s+b
s+a s+1 1
  2
-b -1 0
-a

    1   2  180 o ;     1   2  180o  78.7 o

3
Fix s at - 3;   90 - 78.7o  11 .3o ; b  3   3  15  18
o
tan 11 .3
K c ( s  3)  s s  1 s  18 
Gc ( s )  ; Kc   
  7.8
s  18  10 s  3  s 3 j 3
7.8( s  3)
Gc ( s )  408
s  18
 Adding a Lag Controller

• A first-order lag compensator can be designed using the root locus. A lag
compensator in root locus form is given by

s  zo
G( s) 
s  po
• where the magnitude of zo is greater than the magnitude of po. A phase-lag
compensator tends to shift the root locus to the right, which is undesirable. For this
reason, the pole and zero of a lag compensator must be placed close together
(usually near the origin) so they do not appreciably change the transient response
or stability characteristics of the system.

409
 How does the Lag Controller Shift the Root Locus to the Right?

• Recall finding the asymptotes of the root locus that lead to the zeros at infinity, the
equation to determine the intersection of the asymptotes along the real axis is:

  poles   zeros
poles  zeros
• When a lag compensator is added to a system, the value of this intersection will be
a smaller negative number than it was before. The net number of zeros and poles
will be the same (one zero and one pole are added), but the added pole is a smaller
negative number than the added zero. Thus, the result of a lag compensator is that
the asymptotes' intersection is moved closer to the right half plane, and the entire
root locus will be shifted to the right.

410
 Control Modes
There are many ways by which a control unit can react to an error
and supply an output for correcting elements.
• The two-step mode: The controller is just a switch which is activated by
the error signal and supplies just an on-off correcting signal. Example of
such mode is the bimetallic thermostat.
• The proportional mode (P): This produces a control action that is
proportional to the error. The correcting signal thus becomes bigger the
bigger the error. Therefore, the error is reduced the amount of
correction is reduced and the correcting process slows down. A summing
operational amplifier with an inverter can be used as a proportional
controller.
• The derivative mode: This produces a control action that is proportional
to the rate at which the error is changing. When there is a sudden
change in the error signal the controller gives a large correcting signal.
When there is a gradual change only a small correcting signal is
produced. An operational amplifier connected as a differentiator circuit
followed by another operational amplifier connected as an inverter make
an electronic derivative controller circuit.

411
• The integral mode (I): This produces a control action that is proportional
to the integral of the error with time. Therefore, a constant error signal
will produce an increasing correcting signal. The correction continues to
increase as long as the error persists.

• Combination of modes: Proportional plus derivative modes (PD),

proportional plus integral modes (PI), proportional plus integral plus
derivative modes (PID). The term three-term controller is used for PID
control.

• The controller may achieve these modes by means of pneumatic circuits,

analog electronics involving operational amplifiers or by the programming
of a microprocessor or computer.

412
The steady state requirements are specified in terms of the error constants 𝐾P , 𝐾V and 𝐾A .
Typical Performance specification for design in the frequency domain
• Relative stability requirements are specified in terms of Phase margin and Gain
margin.
• The steady-state specifications are specified in terms of 𝐾𝑝 , 𝐾𝑣 and 𝐾𝑎
• The transient response requirements are specified in terms of Overshoot 𝑀P

and Rise time TR settling time TS

• These specifications are translated to phase margin 𝛾 and the gain crossover
frequency 𝜔 𝑔𝑐
• Steady-state specifications in terms of 𝐾𝑝 , 𝐾𝑣 and 𝐾𝑎.
Note :- 1) The correlations between the time and frequency domain parameters
used in this are exact for a second order system.
2) However when the closed-loop system has a pair of dominant poles, the
correlations are very close and can be used to move back and forth in the time and
frequency domain
What is a Bode Plot
• A Bode plot is a graph commonly used in control system engineering to
determine the stability of a control system. A Bode plot maps the frequency
response of the system through two graphs – the Bode magnitude plot
(expressing the magnitude in decibels) and the Bode phase plot (expressing
the phase shift in degrees).
• Bode plots were first introduced in the 1930s by Hendrik Wade Bode while
he was working at Bell Labs in the United States. Although Bode plots offer a
relatively simple method to calculate system stability, they can not handle
transfer functions with right half plane singularities (unlike Nyquist
stability criterion).
Understanding gain margins and phase margins are crucial to understanding
Bode plots.
Gain Margin
• The greater the Gain Margin (GM), the greater the stability of the system.
• The gain margin refers to the amount of gain, which can be increased or
decreased without making the system unstable.
• It is usually expressed as a magnitude in dB.
• We can usually read the gain margin directly from the Bode plot.
• This is done by calculating the vertical distance between the magnitude curve
(on the Bode magnitude plot) and the x-axis at the frequency where the Bode
phase plot = 180°.
• This point is known as the phase crossover frequency.
• It is important to realize that the Gain and the Gain Margin are not the same things.
In fact, the Gain Margin is the negative of the gain (in decibels, dB).
Gain Margin Formula
• The formula for Gain Margin (GM) can be expressed as:
  GM=0-G dB
1. Where G is the gain. This is the magnitude (in dB) as read from the vertical axis
of the magnitude plot at the phase crossover frequency.
 Phase Margin

• The greater the Phase Margin (PM), the greater will be the stability of the
system.
• The phase margin refers to the amount of phase, which can be increased or
decreased without making the system unstable.
• It is usually expressed as a phase in degrees.
• We can usually read the phase margin directly from the Bode plot
• This is done by calculating the vertical distance between the phase curve (on
the Bode phase plot) and the x-axis at the frequency where the Bode
magnitude plot = 0 dB.
• This point is known as the gain crossover frequency.
• It is important to realize that the phase lag and the Phase Margin are not
the same things.
bode-plot.webp
• Phase Margin Formula
• The formula for Phase Margin (PM) can be expressed as:
   PM=Φ – (-1800)
• Where Φ   is the phase lag (a number less than 0). This is the phase as
read from the vertical axis of the phase plot at the gain crossover
frequency.
Bode Plot Stability
• Below is a summarized list of criterion relevant to drawing Bode plots (and
calculating their stability):
Gain Margin: Greater will the gain margin greater will be the stability of the
system. It refers to the amount of gain, which can be increased or decreased
without making the system unstable. It is usually expressed in dB.
Phase Margin: Greater will the phase margin greater will be the stability of the
system. It refers to the phase which can be increased or decreased without
making the system unstable. It is usually expressed in phase.
Gain Crossover Frequency: It refers to the frequency at which the magnitude
curve cuts the zero dB axis in the bode plot.
Phase Crossover Frequency: It refers to the frequency at which phase curve cuts
the negative times the 180o axis in this plot.
Corner Frequency: The frequency at which the two asymptotes cuts or meet each
other is known as break frequency or corner frequency.
Resonant Frequency: The value of frequency at which the modulus of G (jω) has
a peak value is known as the resonant frequency.
Factors: Every loop transfer function {i.e. G(s) × H(s)} product of various factors
like constant term K, Integral factors (jω), first-order factors ( 1 + jωT)(± n)
where n is an integer, second-order or quadratic factors.
Slope: There is a slope corresponding to each factor and slope for each factor is
expressed in the dB per decade.
Angle: There is an angle corresponding to each factor and angle for each factor is
expressed in the degrees.
Constant term K: This factor has a slope of zero dB per decade. There is no corner
frequency corresponding to this constant term. The phase angle associated with this
constant term is also zero.
Integral factor 1/(jω)n: This factor has a slope of -20 × n (where n is an integer)dB
per decade. There is no corner frequency corresponding to this integral factor. The
phase angle associated with this integral factor is -90 × n. Here n is also an integer.
First order factor 1/ (1+jωT): This factor has a slope of -20 dB per decade. The
corner frequency corresponding to this factor is 1/T radian per second. The phase
angle associated with this first factor is -tan– 1(ωT).
Second order or quadratic factor : [{1/(1+(2ζ/ω)} × (jω) + {(1/ω2)} × (jω)2)]: This
factor has a slope of -40 dB per decade. The corner frequency corresponding to this
factor is ωn radian per second. The phase angle associated with this first factor is
procedure of drawing a Bode plot:
• Substitute the s = jω in the open loop transfer function G(s) × H(s).
• Find the corresponding corner frequencies and tabulate them.
• Now we are required one semi-log graph chooses a frequency range such
that the plot should start with the frequency which is lower than the lowest
corner frequency.
• Mark angular frequencies on the x-axis, mark slopes on the left hand side
of the y-axis by marking a zero slope in the middle and on the right hand
side mark phase angle by taking -180o in the middle.
• Calculate the gain factor and the type of order of the system.
• Now calculate slope corresponding to each factor.
Bode Stability Criterion
• Stability conditions are given below:
• For a Stable System: Both the margins should be positive or phase margin should be
greater than the gain margin.
• For Marginal Stable System: Both the margins should be zero or phase margin should
be equal to the gain margin.
• For Unstable System: If any of them is negative or phase margin should be less than
the gain margin.
Advantages of a Bode Plot
• It is based on the asymptotic approximation, which provides a simple
method to plot the logarithmic magnitude curve.
• The multiplication of various magnitude appears in the transfer function can
be treated as an addition, while division can be treated as subtraction as we
are using a logarithmic scale.
• With the help of this plot only we can directly comment on the stability of
the system without doing any calculations.
• Bode plots provide relative stability in terms of gain margin and phase
margin.
• It also covers from low frequency to high frequency range.
phase crossover frequency
• The phase crossover frequency is the frequency at which the phase angle first reaches
−180°.
Gain margin
• This is the factor by which the gain must be multiplied at the phase crossover to have
the value 1.
• A good stable control system usually has an open-loop gain significantly less than 1,
typically about 0.4–0.5, when the phase shift is −180° and so a gain margin of 1/0.5–
1/0.4, i.e. 2–2.5.
Gain crossover
• This is the frequency at which the open-loop gain first reaches 1.
4.Phase margin
• This is the number of degrees by which the phase angle is smaller than −180° at the 
gain crossover. A good stable control system usually has typically an open-loop phase
shift of between −115° and −125° when the gain is 1; thus, the phase margin is
between 45° and 65°.
The stability of the control system based on the relation between the phase cross
over frequency and the gain cross over frequency is listed below.
•If the phase cross over frequency ωpc is greater than the gain cross over

frequency ωgc, then the control system is stable.

•If the phase cross over frequency ωpc is equal to the gain cross over frequency ωgc,
then the control system is marginally stable.
•If the phase cross over frequency ωpc is less than the gain cross over frequency ωgc,
then the control system is unstable.
INTRODUCTION
• The toaster in Fig.1.2a can be set for the desired darkness of the toasted
bread. The setting of the ‘‘darkness’’ knob, or timer, represents the input
quantity, and the degree of darkness and crispness of the toast produced is
the output quantity.
• If the degree of darkness is not satisfactory, because of the condition of the
bread or some similar reason, this condition can in no way automatically
alter the length of time that heat is applied.
• Since the output quantity has no influence on the input quantity, there is no
feedback in this system. The heater portion of the toaster represents the
dynamic part of the overall system, and the timer unit is the reference
selector
• For a given value of field current, a required value of voltage is applied to
the armature to produce the desired value of motor speed.
• In this case the motor is the dynamic part of the system, the applied
armature voltage is the input quantity, and the speed of the shaft is the
output quantity.
• A variation of the speed from the desired value, due to a change of
mechanical load on the shaft, can in no way cause a change in the value of
the applied armature voltage to maintain the desired speed.
• Therefore, the output quantity has no influence on the input quantity
• Systems in which the output quantity has no effect upon the input quantity
are called open-loop control systems.
• The examples just cited are represented symbolically by a functional block
diagram, as shown in Fig. 1.2c. In this figure,

(1) the desired darkness of the toast or the desired speed of the motor is the
command input,

(2) the selection of the value of time on the toaster timer or the value of
voltage applied to the motor armature is represented by the reference-
selector block, and

(3) the output of this block is identified as the reference input. The
reference input is applied to the dynamic unit that performs the desired
control function, and the output of this block is the desired output
• Examples of Open-Loop Control System

In many applications which we are using in our day to day life, this control system is used.
Now we will see different systems that are designed based on the open-loop control system
concept.

 Electric bulb

 TV remote control

 Washing Machine

 Volume on the stereo system

 Clothes drier

 Servo motor or stepper motor

 Door lock systems

 Coffee or tea making machine

 Inkjet printers
 Closed loop control systems.

• A person could be assigned the task of sensing the actual value of the
output and comparing it with the command input. If the output does not
have the desired value, the person can alter the reference-selector position
to achieve this value.
• Introducing the person provides a means through which the output is fed
back and is compared with the input.
• Any necessary change is then made in order to cause the output to equal
the desired value.
• The feedback action therefore controls the input to the dynamic unit.
Systems inwhich the output has a direct effect upon the input quantity are
called closedloop control systems
• To improve the performance of the closed-loop system so that the output quantity
is as close as possible to the desired quantity, the person can be replaced by a
mechanical, electrical, or other form of a comparison unit.
• The functional block diagram of a single-input single-output(SISO) closed-loop
control system is illustrated in Fig. 1.3.
• Comparison between the reference input and the feedback signals results in an
actuating signal that is the difference between these two quantities.
• The actuating signal acts to maintain the output at the desired value. This system is
called a closed-loop control system.
• The designation closed-loop implies the action resulting from the comparison
between the output and input quantities in order to maintain the output at the
desired value.
• Thus, the output is controlled in order to achieve the desired value
• Examples of closed-loop control systems are illustrated in Figs. 1.4 and 1.5. In a home
heating system the desired room temperature (command input) is set on the thermostat in
Fig.1.4. (reference selector).
• A bimetallic coil in the thermostat is affected by both the actual room temperature (output)
and the reference-selector setting.
• If the room temperature is lower than the desired temperature, the coil strip alters its shape
and causes a mercury switch to operate a relay, which turns on the furnace to produce heat
in the room.
• When the room temperature [1] reaches the desired temperature, the shape of the coil strip
is again altered so that the mercury switchopens.
• This deactivates the relay and in turn shuts off the furnace. In this example, the bimetallic
coil performs the function of a comparator since the output (room temperature) is fed back
directly to the comparator.
• The switch, relay, and furnace are the dynamic elements of this closed-loop control system.
• A closed-loop control system of great importance to all multistory
buildings is the automatic elevator of Fig. 1.5.
• A person in the elevator presses the button corresponding to the desired
floor. This produces an actuating signal that indicates the desired floor and
turns on the motor that raises or lowers the elevator. As the elevator
approaches the desired floor, the actuating signal decreases in value and,
with the proper switching sequences, the elevator stops at the desired floor
and the actuating signal is reset to zero.
• The closed loop control system for the express elevator in the building is
designed so that it ascends or descends the HIGHER NUMBER floors in
just under 1min with maximum passenger comfort
Practical examples of closed loop
control systems are,
 Voltage Stabilizer
 Thermostat Heater
 Modern Air Conditioner
 Induction Cooker
 Electric Iron
 Water Level Controller
 Automatic Street Light
 Smoke Detection System
 Automatic Toaster
 Motor Speed Controller
 Industrial Refrigerators
 Servo Motor
 DEFINITIONS

System.

A combination of components that act together to perform a function not possible

with any of the individual parts. The word system as used herein is interpreted to
include physical, biological, organizational, and other entities, and combinations
thereof, which can be represented through a common mathematical symbolism.
The formal name systems engineering can also be assigned to this definition of the
word system. Thus, the study of feedback control systems is essentially a study of
an important aspect of systems engineering and its application.
Command input.
The motivating input signal to the system, which is independent of the output of the
system and exercises complete control over it (if the system is completely
controllable).
Reference selector (reference input element).

The unit that establishes the value of the reference input. The reference selector is

calibrated in terms of the desired value of the system output.

Reference input.

The reference signal produced by the reference selector, i.e., the command expressed in a

form directly usable by the system. It is the actual signal input to the control system.

Disturbance input.

An external disturbance input signal to the system that has an unwanted effect on the

system output.

Forward element (system dynamics).

The unit that reacts to an actuating signal to produce a desired output. This unit does the

work of controlling the output and thus may be a power amplifier.

Output (controlled variable).

The quantity that must be maintained at a prescribed value, i.e., following the command input
without responding the disturbance inputs.

Open-loop control system.

A system in which the output has no effect upon the input signal.

Feedback element.

The unit that provides the means for feeding back the output quantity, or a function of the
output, in order to compare it with the reference input.

Actuating signal.

The signal that is the difference between the reference input and the feedback signal. It is the
input to the control unit that causes the output to have the desired value.

Closed-loop control system.

A system in which the output has an effect upon the input quantity in such a manner as to
maintain the desired output value.
 Basic terminologies in control system
• System:

A combination or arrangement of a number of different physical components to form a

whole unit such that that combining unit performs to achieve a certain goal.
• Control:

The action to command, direct or regulate a system.

• Plant or process:

The part or component of a system that is required to be controlled. Input: It is the

signal or excitation supplied to a control system.
• Output:

It is the actual response obtained from the control system.

• Controller:

The part or component of a system that controls the plant.

• Disturbances:

The signal that has adverse effect on the performance of a control system.
• Control system:

A system that can command, direct or regulate itself or another system to achieve a
certain goal.
• Control System:

An interconnection of components forming a system configuration that will provide a

desired response.
• Automation:

The control of a process by automatic means

• Actuator:

It is the device that causes the process to provide the output. It is the device that
provides the motive power to the process.
• Design:

The process of conceiving or inventing the forms, parts, and details of system to achieve a specified
purpose.
• Simulation:

A model of a system that is used to investigate the behavior of a system by utilizing actual input
signals.
• Optimization:

The adjustment of the parameters to achieve the most favorable or advantageous design.
• Feedback Signal:

A measure of the output of the system used for feedback to control the system.
• Negative feedback:

The output signal is feedback so that it subtracts from the input signal.
• Block diagrams:

Unidirectional, operational blocks that represent the transfer functions of the elements of the system.
• Signal Flow Graph (SFG):

A diagram that consists of nodes connected by several directed branches and that is a
graphical representation of a set of linear relations.
• Specifications:

Statements that explicitly state what the device or product is to be and to do. It is also
defined as a set of prescribed performance criteria.
• Open-loop control system:

A system that utilizes a device to control the process without using feedback. Thus the
output has no effect upon the signal to the process.
• Closed-loop feedback control system:

A system that uses a measurement of the output and compares it with the desired output.
• Regulator:

The control system where the desired values of the controlled outputs are more or less fixed
and the main problem is to reject disturbance effects.
• Servo system:

The control system where the outputs are mechanical quantities like
acceleration, velocity or position.
• Stability:

It is a notion that describes whether the system will be able to follow the
input command. In a non-rigorous sense, a system is said to be unstable if its
output is out of control or increases without bound.
• Multivariable Control System:

A system with more than one input variable or more than one output variable.
• Trade-off:

The result of making a judgment about how much compromise must be made
between conflicting criteria.
 What is a an Open Loop Control System?
• The collection of subsystems that controls the input signal to get the desired
output is known as a system.
• The main function of any electronic system is regulating the output and keep that
within systems desired input i.e when the input of the system changes, the output
of the system should respond and change according to the changed input value.
• In another case, if there is no change in input but the output of the system is
getting disturbed then the output should respond by coming back to its previous
value.
• To carry out a specific objective the Control systems direct the operation.

• In olden days, these control systems were controlled manually which is known as
the open-loop control system. Refrigerator, TV, Fan, Satellite all these systems
need controlling to get proper output, thus control systems are needed to get
specific output.
• Coming to the definition, a control system in which the system’s output is
depending on the input, but the input is not dependent on the output of the system
is an Open-loop control system.
• This system is also called as non -feedback systems as it doesn’t have any feedback
loop. In this non-feedback system, the output is not measured and even it’s not
given as feedback to input for further considerations.
• The block diagram of this control system is shown below. In the following
diagram, we can see two blocks, one is a controller block and another one is a
controlled process block.
• Basing on the output requirement, the input is given to the controller of the system.
The controller receives the input signal and generates the control signal and it is
forwarded to the processing unit block, this block receives the control signal and
process it properly and finally gives the output signal.
 As this is also the non feedback system, due to no feedback path in the system,
input can’t do anything though the output received at the end is desired or not.
 This is the reason to say the input is independent of output in the 
control unit system.
 The error is produced in the system because there is no chance of adjusting input as
there is no feedback signal in this control system.
 Advantages

The main advantages of the open-loop control system are

• These systems are very much suitable for use

• The design of this system is very simple.

• The maintenance aspect of this system is simple.
• The stability is good for some extent of time in this control system

• The convenience in usage is very good

• The cost is low when compared to other systems.
• The output produced is stable
 Disadvantages

The disadvantages of the open-loop control system are

• The automatic correction of output deviations cannot be done in this
control system
• Inaccuracy exists in these systems
• There exists less bandwidth

• Timely recalibration is required in this control system

• As it is a non-feedback system, the automation of the process will not
be initiated
• The disturbances from outside also show the impact on the required
output
 Open Loop Control System Applications

The applications of the open-loop control system are

• Automatic Washing Machine

We use a washing machine to wash and dry clothes. This machine runs on the timer and not depends on

the condition of clothes

• Electric Hand Drier

The hands drier works on the electric power supply. When the hand is kept in front of it, hot air will be

blown from it for some time for making the hand dry, it will not consider how much our hand is dried it

will only consider the time

• The Volume of the Audio System

the adjustment of the volume of the audio system is done manually

• Bread Toaster

the bread toaster will toast the bread according to the given time and it will not consider the bread state

into account.
 Closed-Loop Control System

Definition:
• A closed-loop control system is a type of control system in which the controlling
action shows dependency on the generated output of the system.
• In simple words, in these systems, the output of the system controls the input
applied to the system.
• The variation in input according to the output leads to produce more accurate system
output. Thus controllability in the closed-loop system is achieved through the output
generated by utilizing a feedback path.
• Closed-loop systems are considered as fully automatic control system because it is designed in a way that

the achieved output is automatically compared with the reference input to have the required output.

Need for Closed-Loop Control System

• A control system is a system that is designed to produce a specified output by the action of required

controlling.

• Now the controlling provided to the system can be either output independent or output dependent. This

variation leads to give two different categories of control system.

• A system in which controlling action is independent of the generated system output is known as

 open-loop control system.

• While in a closed-loop system, the produced output controls the functioning of the system by the used of

feedback.

• Basically a closed-loop system was designed to overcome the disadvantages associated with an open-loop

system. We know that open-loop systems do not hold the ability to automatically provide accurate output.
• We all are aware of the fact that the basic requirement of using an electrical or

electronic system is to generate the desired output. And in any system, if the

measurement is not performed and the required output is not achieved then it

becomes almost impossible to get the accurate system response.

• So, to have the accurate system response the easiest way is to compare the applied

input with the achieved output. This helps in determining the error which is present

inside the system. Therefore, once the error is measured then it can be reduced to

the lowest possible value in order to get the desired output.

• Thus in a closed-loop system, a feedback signal is provided to the input. This
feedback signal and the reference input signal acts as system excitation to get the
desired response. Thus in this way, the output performs the controlling action in a
closed-loop system.
 What is Feedback?
• So basically feedback acts as the characteristic of the system that allows
comparison between achieved output and reference input of a system.
• A feedback is generally a part of the output signal which is given back to the input
signal so that the two can be compared and the desired output can be achieved if
the present output shows variation with the desired output.
• Thus feedback loop is considered as the key parameter of a closed-loop control
system. Feedback in any circuit can be generally of 2 types:
• Positive Feedback: The type of feedback in a control system in which the input

signal and the feedback signal are in phase with each other is known as a positive

feedback system.

• In these systems, the reference input gets added with the feedback signal thereby

increasing the gain of the overall system.

• Negative Feedback: In the case of negative feedback, the input signal and the

feedback signal show out-of-phase relationship wrt each other.

• Thus the applied input signal and the feedback signal are subtracted to get the error

signal. This leads to a reduction in the overall gain of the system.

• Thus we can say it is the factor that is most importantly responsible to have the

desired response of a system.

 Operation of a Closed Loop System

• Here as we can see that command input is fed to a transducer.

• This is so because it is not always necessary that the available input is acceptable by the
controller. Thus in such cases, the input cannot be directly applied to the system. As it
must be changed from one form to another so that it can perform the role of reference
input for the system.
• This is the reason input is initially applied to the transducer so that it can be changed to
a form acceptable by the system according to the nature of controller and process.
• When the controller produces the control signal according to input applied, then the
required action according to the generated signal takes place inside the system.
• This leads to the generation of a specific output.

• But it is necessary to measure the generated output in order to find whether it is

the desired output or not.

• So, for this, a part of the achieved output is given back to the input. This signal

acts as a feedback signal.

• This feedback signal, when compared with reference input, generates an error

signal.

• This error signal is further provided to the controller that produces a manipulated

signal (proportional to error signal) which is nothing but a control signal that

guides the process to eliminate the error thereby producing the desired output.

• The achieved output is known as the controlled output of the system and holds

accuracy.
 Transfer Function of Closed-Loop Control System

• Transfer function indicates the behavior of the system as it is defined as the

mathematical relation between the input and output of the system.
• The gain of the system defines the ratio of output to input. Thus we can say the output
of the system is the product of transfer function and input.
Advantages:
• More accurate operation than that of open-loop control system
• Can operate efficiently when input or system parameters are variable in
nature
• Less nonlinearity effect of these systems on output response
• High bandwidth of operation
• There is facility of automation
• Time to time recalibration of the parameters are not required
Disadvantages:
• Complex design and difficult to construct
• Expensive than that of open-loop control system
• Complicate for maintenance
• Less stable operation than that of open-loop control system
Comparison between Open-loop and Closed-loop
control systems:
 Classification

Natural control system and Man-made control system:

• Natural control system: It is a control system that is created by nature, i.e. solar
system, digestive system of any animal, etc.
• Man-made control system: It is a control system that is created by humans, i.e.
automobile, power plants etc.

Automatic control system and Combinational control system:

• Automatic control system: It is a control system that is made by using basic
theories from mathematics and engineering. This system mainly has sensors,
actuators and responders.
• Combinational control system: It is a control system that is a combination of
natural and man-made control systems, i.e. driving a car etc.
Time-variant control system and Time-invariant control system:
• Time-variant control system: It is a control system where any one or more
parameters of the control system vary with time i.e. driving a vehicle.
• Time-invariant control system: It is a control system where none of its
parameters vary with time i.e. control system made up of inductors, capacitors and
resistors only.

Linear control system and Non-linear control system:

• Linear control system: It is a control system that satisfies properties of
homogeneity and additive.
– Homogeneous property: f (x +y)= f (x)+ f ( y)
– Additive property: f (αx )=αf x

• Non-linear control system: It is a control system that does not satisfy properties of
homogeneity and additive, i.e. f (x) =x3
Continuous-Time control system and Discrete-Time control system:
• Continuous-Time control system: It is a control system where performances of all
of its parameters are function of time, i.e. armature type speed control of motor.
• Discrete -Time control system: It is a control system where performances of all of
its parameters are function of discrete time i.e. microprocessor type speed control
of motor.

Deterministic control system and Stochastic control system:

• Deterministic control system: It is a control system where its output is predictable
or repetitive for certain input signal or disturbance signal.
• Stochastic control system: It is a control system where its output is unpredictable
or non-repetitive for certain input signal or disturbance signal
Lumped-parameter control system and Distributed-parameter control system:
• Lumped-parameter control system: It is a control system where its mathematical
model is represented by ordinary differential equations.
• Distributed-parameter control system: It is a control system where its
mathematical model is represented by an electrical network that is a combination of
resistors, inductors and capacitors.

Single-input-single-output (SISO) control system and Multi-input-multi-output

(MIMO) control system:
• SISO control system: It is a control system that has only one input and one output.
• MIMO control system: It is a control system that has only more than one input
and more than one output.
Open-loop control system and Closed-loop control system:
• Open-loop control system: It is a control system where its control action only
depends on input signal and does not depend on its output response.
• Closed-loop control system: It is a control system where its control action depends
on both of its input signal and output response.

Feedback System
• A feedback system is the one which utilizes presently achieved output of the system
for causing variation in the applied input signal in order to get the required output.
More simply, we can say that the presence of a feedback system allows getting the
desired output with continuous comparison from the reference input of the system.
• Generally, these systems are used to provide more corrective response, by
comparing the achieved output with the applied input
• By the use of feedback in a control system, the system shows less sensitivity to the
unwanted internal and external disturbances.

What is Feedback?
• in a control system the controller generates the required signal according to input.
that control systems are majorly classified as:
• Open-loop control system
• Closed-loop control system
• In an open-loop control system, the present input is independent of the previously
generated output. Thus it is clear that here feedback loop is not present, as no signal
is fed back to the input for further considerations.
• If either the output or some part of the output is returned to the input side and
utilized as part of the system input, then it is known as feedback. Feedback plays
an important role in order to improve the performance of the control systems.
Types of Feedback
• There are two types of feedback −
Positive feedback
Negative feedback
Positive Feedback
• The positive feedback adds the reference input, R(s) and feedback
output. The figure shows the block diagram of positive feedback control
system.
Negative Feedback
• Negative feedback reduces the error between the reference input, R(s) and system
output. The figure shows the block diagram of the negative feedback control
system.
 Effects of Feedback
• Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain
• Effect of Feedback on Sensitivity
• Effect of Feedback on Stability
• Effect of Feedback on Noise

• Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain

• From T.F, we can say that the overall gain of negative feedback closed loop control system is the ratio of

'G' and (1+GH).

• So, the overall gain may increase or decrease depending on the value of (1+GH).

• If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then the overall gain increases. In this case, 'GH' value is negative

because the gain of the feedback path is negative.

• If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then the overall gain decreases. In this case, 'GH' value is positive

because the gain of the feedback path is positive.

In general, 'G' and 'H' are functions of frequency. So, the feedback will increase the overall gain

of the system in one frequency range and decrease in the other frequency range.
• Effect of Feedback on Sensitivity
• Sensitivity of the overall gain of negative feedback closed loop control
system (T) to the variation in open loop gain (G) is defined as

• Where, ∂T is the incremental change in T due to incremental change in G.

Transfer function of negative feedback control system is,

• So, the sensitivity of the overall gain of closed loop control system is as
the reciprocal of (1+GH). So, Sensitivity may increase or decrease
depending on the value of (1+GH).
• If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then sensitivity increases. In this case,
'GH' value is negative because the gain of feedback path is negative.
• If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then sensitivity decreases. In this
case, 'GH' value is positive because the gain of feedback path is positive.
• In general, 'G' and 'H' are functions of frequency. So, feedback will
increase the sensitivity of the system gain in one frequency range and
decrease in the other frequency range. Therefore, we have to choose the
values of 'GH' in such a way that the system is insensitive or less sensitive
to parameter variations
• Effect of Feedback on Stability
• A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control. Otherwise, it is
said to be unstable.
• In T.F =G/1+GH, if the denominator value is zero (i.e., GH = -1), then the
output of the control system will be infinite. So, the control system
becomes unstable.
• Therefore, we have to properly choose the feedback in order to make the
control system stable.
Effect of Feedback on Noise
• To know the effect of feedback on noise, let us compare the transfer
function relations with and without feedback due to noise signal alone.
• The open loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is

It is obtained by making the other input  R(s) equal to zero.

Consider a closed loop control system with noise signal as shown below.
It is obtained by making the other input R(s) equal to zero.
Compare both
In the closed loop control system, the gain due to noise signal is
decreased by a factor of  1/(1+GaGbH)  
 Mathematical models, Differential equations ,

• In order to analyze a dynamic system we require an accurate mathematical model

that describes a system completely and is to be determined.
• The derivation of this model is based upon system dynamics and can be
completely described by known differential equations or by experimental test data.
• The ability to analyze the system and determine its performance depends on how
well the characteristics can be expressed mathematically.
• In LCS and in LTI systems the relationship between the system input and output
is independent of time.
• Since the system does not change with time, the output is independent of the time
at which the input is applied.
• Linear methods are used because there is extensive and elegant mathematics for
solving linear equations.
• Control System Dynamics.

Definition: It is the study of characteristics behavior of dynamic system,

i.e. (a) Differential equation i. First-order systems ii. Second-order
systems (b) System transfer function: Laplace transform.

Laplace Transform: Laplace transforms convert differential equations into

algebraic equations. They are related to frequency response.
Solution of system dynamics in Laplace form:
Laplace transforms can be solved using partial fraction method. A system
is usually represented by following dynamic equation.

The factor of denominator, B(s) is represented by following forms,

i. Unrepeated factors
ii. Repeated factors
iii. Unrepeated complex factors
• A mathematical model of a dynamic system is defined as a set of equations that
represents the dynamics of the system accurately, or at least fairly well.
• Note that a mathematical model is not unique to a given system.
• A system may be represented in many different ways and, therefore, may have
many mathematical models, depending on one’s perspective.
• The dynamics of many systems, whether they are mechanical, electrical, thermal,
economic, biological, and so on, may be described in terms of differential
equations.
• Such differential equations may be obtained by using physical laws governing a
particular system—for example, Newton’s laws for mechanical systems and
Kirchhoff’s laws for electrical systems.
• i.e deriving reasonable mathematical models is the most important part of the
entire analysis of control systems.
• Mathematical models may assume many different forms. Depending on the
particular system and the particular circumstances, one mathematical model
may be better suited than other models.
• optimal control problems, state-space representations.
• transient-response or frequency-response analysis of single-input, single-
output, linear, time-invariant systems, the transfer-function representation
may be more convenient than any other.
• In obtaining a mathematical model, we must make a compromise between
the simplicity of the model and the accuracy of the results of the analysis.
( ignore certain inherent physical properties of the system).
• in a linear lumped-parameter mathematical model it is always necessary to
ignore certain nonlinearities and distributed parameters that may be present
in the physical system.
• a linear lumped-parameter model, which may be valid in low-frequency
operations, may not be valid at sufficiently high frequencies, since the
neglected property of distributed parameters may become an important
factor in the dynamic behavior of the system.
• For example, the mass of a spring may be neglected in low frequency
operations, but it becomes an important property of the system at high
frequencies.
• Linear Systems. A system is called linear if the principle of superposition
applies. for the linear system, the response to several inputs can be
calculated by treating one input at a time and adding the results.
• Linear Time-Invariant Systems and Linear Time-Varying Systems. A
differential equation is linear if the coefficients are constants or functions
only of the independent variable.
 TRANSFER FUNCTION AND IMPULSERESPONSE FUNCTION

• In control theory, functions called transfer functions are commonly used to

characterize the input-output relationships of components or systems that
can be described by linear, time-invariant, differential equations.
• The transfer function of a linear, time-invariant, differential equation system
is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output (response
function) to the Laplace transform of the input (driving function) under the
assumption that all initial conditions are zero.
• Consider the linear time-invariant system defined by the following
differential equation
• where ‘y’ is the output of the system and ‘x’ is the input.

• By using the concept of transfer function, it is possible to represent system

dynamics by algebraic equations in s.
• If the highest power of s in the denominator of the transfer function is equal
to n, the system is called an nth-order system.
• The applicability of the concept of the transfer function is limited to linear,
time-invariant, differential equation systems. The transfer function approach,
however, is extensively used in the analysis and design of such systems
 Comments on Transfer Function

• The transfer function of a system is a mathematical model in that it is an

operational method of expressing the differential equation that relates the output

variable to the input variable.

• The transfer function is a property of a system itself, independent of the

magnitude and nature of the input or driving function.

• The transfer function includes the units necessary to relate the input to the

output; however, it does not provide any information concerning the physical

structure of the system.

• If the transfer function of a system is known, the output or response can be

studied for various forms of inputs with a view toward understanding the nature of

the system.
• If the transfer function of a system is unknown, it may be established experimentally by introducing
known inputs and studying the output of the system. Once established, a transfer function gives a full
description of the dynamic characteristics of the system, as distinct from its physical description.

• Convolution Integral.
• For a linear, time-invariant system the transfer function G(s) is

• where X(s) is the Laplace transform of the input to the system and
• Y(s) is the Laplace transform of the output of the system,

• where we assume that all initial conditions involved are zero.

• It follows that the output Y(s) can be written as the product of G(s) and X(s),
• Note that multiplication in the complex domain is equivalent to convolution in the time
domain, so the inverse Laplace transform of Equation is given by the following convolution
integral:
 Impulse-Response Function .

•Impulse Response of LTI System

•When the impulse signal is applied to a linear system, then the response of the system

is called the impulse response. The impulse response of the system is very important

for understanding the behaviour of the system.

•Input,x(t)=δ(t) Output,y(t)=h(t)

•As the Laplace transform and Fourier transform of the impulse function is given by,

L[δ(t)]=1and F[δ(t)]=1

•Hence, once the transfer function H(ω)of an LTI system is known in frequency

domain, then the impulse response of the system can be determined by taking the

inverse Fourier transform of H(ω), i.e., h(t)=F−1[H(ω)]

• Similarly, once the transfer function H(s) of an LTI system is

known in s-domain, then the impulse response of the system can be

determined by taking the inverse Laplace transform of H(s) i.e.,

h(t)=L−1[H(s)]

• Once the impulse response h(t)of the linear system is known, then

the response of the linear system y(t) for any given input signal x(t)

can be obtained by convolving the input with the impulse response

of the system, i.e.,

y(t)=h(t)∗x(t)
• The control systems can be represented with a set of mathematical equations known
as mathematical model. These models are useful for analysis and design of control systems.
Analysis of control system means finding the output when we know the input and
mathematical model. Design of control system means finding the mathematical model when
we know the input and the output.

• The following mathematical models are mostly used.

Differential equation model, Transfer function model, State space model.

Differential Equation Model

• Differential equation model is a time domain mathematical model of control systems.

• Apply basic laws to the given control system.

• Get the differential equation in terms of input and output by eliminating the intermediate
variable(s).
Transfer Function Model
• Transfer function model is an s-domain mathematical model of control
systems.
• If x(t) and y(t) are the input and output of an LTI system, then the
corresponding Laplace transforms are X(s) and Y(s).
• Therefore, the transfer function of LTI system is equal to the ratio
of Y(s) and X(s).
• i.e., Transfer Function=Y(s)/X(s)
 Procedure for determining the transfer function of a control
system are as follows:

• form the equations for the system.

• take Laplace transform of the system equations, assuming initial
conditions as zero.
• Specify system output and input.
• take the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output and the
Laplace transform of the input which is the required transfer
function.
• It is not necessary that output and input of a control system are of same category.

• For example, in electric motors the input is electrical signal whereas the output is
mechanical signal since electrical energy required to rotate the motors.
• Similarly in an electric generator, the input is mechanical signal and the output is
electrical signal, since mechanical energy is required to produce electricity in a
generator.
• But for mathematical analysis, of a system all kinds of signals should be
represented in a similar form.
• This is done by transforming all kinds of signal to their Laplace form. Also the
transfer function of a system is represented by Laplace form by dividing output
Laplace transfer function to input Laplace transfer function.
• Hence a basic block diagram of a control system can be represented as
 Methods of Obtaining a Transfer Function

• There are major two ways of obtaining a transfer function for the control system. The ways are:

• Block Diagram Method: 

It is not convenient to derive a complete transfer function for a complex control system.

Therefore the transfer function of each element of a control system is represented by a block

diagram.

Block diagram reduction techniques are applied to obtain the desired transfer function.

• Signal Flow Graphs: 

The modified form of a block diagram is a signal flow graph. Block diagram gives a pictorial

representation of a control system.

Signal flow graph further shortens the representation of a control system.

Poles and Zeros of Transfer Function
• Now in the above function if s = z1, or s = z2, or s = z3,….s = zn, the value
of transfer function becomes zero.

• These z1, z2, z3,….zn, are roots of the numerator polynomial. As for these
roots the numerator polynomial, the transfer function becomes zero, these
roots are called zeros of the transfer function.

• Now, if s = p1, or s = p2, or s = p3,….s = pm, the value of transfer function

becomes infinite.
• Thus the roots of denominator are called the poles of the function.
• Hence, when s → ∞ and n > m, the function will have also value of infinity, that
means the transfer function has poles at infinite s, and the multiplicity or order of
such pole is n – m.
• Again, when s → ∞ and n < m, the transfer function will have value of zero that
means the transfer function has zeros at infinite s, and the multiplicity or order of
such zeros is m – n.

zeros of the function are, at s= -1, -2 and the

poles of the functions are at s= -3, -4, -5, -2 + 4j, -2 – 4j.
• Here n = 2 and m = 5,

as n < m and m – n = 3,
the function will have 3 zeros at s → ∞.

The poles and zeros are plotted in the figure below

• In the above transfer function, if the value of numerator is zero,

• then These are the location of zeros of the function.

•
Similarly, in the above transfer function, if the value of denominator is zero, then
• The impulse response of a system is What will be the transfer function of the
system?
Find the transfer function.
 Differential equation modeling of mechanical systems.
• There are two types of mechanical systems based on the type of rigid body
motion.

• Translational mechanical systems

• Rotational mechanical systems

• Rigid body:

• When a body has negligible or zero deformation , then it is known as rigid

body. A rigid body is usually considered as a continuous distribution of
mass . A perfect rigid body is when all the bodies are made up of atoms and
molecules which are in a state of uniform motion . All the microscopic
displacements are negligible and small , in this case the given body called
rigid.
Definition of translational motion :
• When a body is moving in a straight line or a linear path , it is
known as translational motion . In other words, translational
motion is 1- dimensional motion .
Examples of translatory motion :
• Translational motion of the box on a straight line
• Translational motion of the box in an incline plane
• If a box is pushed in forward direction in straight path then its having a
translational motion.
• When the box is pushed forward the whole body moves along with that
each constituent particle of the that box also moves in forward
direction.
• If we consider two particles as two points , then we can say the
distance between two points is constant in this translational motion .
Each particle will experience same effects as the box experiences.
• In a freely falling body ,when a body falls freely in downward direction .
• The distance between two constituent particle in the body is fixed.
• The motion of each particle in that body is similar to the translational
motion of the whole body .
• For translational motion , the coordinates of the body always stays in parallel
to the space coordinate system through the motion of a rigid body , this
motion is called pure translational in nature.
• Due to translatory force a body move in a straight line with uniform motion
When the body moves from one point to the other in a straight path , this
kind of movement is known as translational movement.
• The characteristic of a pure translational motion is that , during any time of
interval ,every constituent particle of a rigid body undergoes the same
amount of displacement.
• In translational motion rigid body behaves as a single particle . If , the
motion of a particle in a rigid body can be described then the motion of the
whole body can be described.
• If a body is fixed at one point it cannot have any translational motion.
Types of translational motion :
Rectilinear motion Curvilinear motion
Rotational motion :
• When a body moves in a circular path about an
axis , the motion is called rotational motion. The
axis is called axis of rotation .
• Example –motion of a wheel , motion of a ball.
• When a wheel rotates around the axis passing normally through
its centre then the motion is rotational motion .
• The whole body as well as the constituent particles of the wheel
rotates along the axis .
• The wheel traces a circular path on its axis so it is a rotational
motion.
• The motion of a ball when it spins around its axis that passes
normally through the centre of the ball then the ball and its
constituent particles show rotational motion.
In the same ball when the axis is shifted to the
circumference then the whole ball will rotate around the
axis .
In this case also the ball traces a circular path. This is also
rotational motion.
In pure rotational motion every constituent particles shows
rotational motion along with the whole body .
The rotation of a rigid body about a fixed axis , is known as
axis of rotation .
The pure rotation is that during any time interval ,every
constituent particle of the rigid body experiences the same
angular displacement.
The whole rigid body behaves as a particle in case of pure
rotation.
 Difference between translational motion and rotational motion :

Translational motion Rotational motion

The body moves in a straight The body moves in a circular

line . path on an axis of rotation.

The body same displacement in The body travels same angular

equal interval of time displacement in equal interval of
time.
 Modeling of Translational Mechanical
Systems
• translational mechanical systems move along a straight line.
These systems mainly consist of three basic elements. Those
are mass, spring and dashpot or damper.
• If a force is applied to a translational mechanical system, then
it is opposed by opposing forces due to mass, elasticity and
friction of the system.
• Since the applied force and the opposing forces are in opposite
directions, the algebraic sum of the forces acting on the
system is zero.
 force opposed by these three elements
individually.
• Mass
• Mass is the property of a body, which stores kinetic energy.
• If a force is applied on a body having mass M, then it is opposed
by an opposing force due to mass.
• This opposing force is proportional to the acceleration of the
body. Assume elasticity and friction are negligible.
Spring
• Spring is an element, which stores potential energy. If a force
is applied on spring K, then it is opposed by an opposing force
due to elasticity of spring. This opposing force is proportional
to the displacement of the spring. Assume mass and friction
are negligible.
Dashpot
• If a force is applied on dashpot B, then it is
opposed by an opposing force due
to friction of the dashpot. This opposing force
is proportional to the velocity of the body.
Assume mass and elasticity are negligible.
 Modeling of Rotational Mechanical Systems

• Rotational mechanical systems move about a fixed axis. These

systems mainly consist of three basic elements. Those
are moment of inertia, torsional spring and dashpot.
• If a torque is applied to a rotational mechanical system, then it is
opposed by opposing torques due to moment of inertia, elasticity
and friction of the system.
• Since the applied torque and the opposing torques are in opposite
directions, the algebraic sum of torques acting on the system is
zero. Let us now see the torque opposed by these three elements
individually.
Moment of Inertia

• In translational mechanical system, mass stores kinetic energy.

Similarly, in rotational mechanical system, moment of inertia
stores kinetic energy.

• If a torque is applied on a body having moment of inertia J, then it is

opposed by an opposing torque due to the moment of inertia. This
opposing torque is proportional to angular acceleration of the body.
Assume elasticity and friction are negligible.
Torsional Spring

• In translational mechanical system, spring stores potential

energy. Similarly, in rotational mechanical system, torsional
spring stores potential energy.

• If a torque is applied on torsional spring K, then it is opposed

by an opposing torque due to the elasticity of torsional spring.

• This opposing torque is proportional to the angular

displacement of the torsional spring. Assume that the moment
of inertia and friction are negligible.
Dashpot
• If a torque is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an
opposing torque due to the rotational friction of the dashpot.
This opposing torque is proportional to the angular velocity of
the body. Assume the moment of inertia and elasticity are
negligible.
 Analogous systems

• Two systems are said to be analogous to each

other if the following two conditions are
satisfied.
• The two systems are physically different

• Differential equation modeling of these two

systems are same
• Electrical systems and mechanical systems are
two physically different systems. There are
two types of electrical analogies of
translational mechanical systems. Those are
force voltage analogy and force current
analogy.
 Force Voltage Analogy

• In force voltage analogy, the mathematical

equations of translational mechanical
system are compared with mesh equations of
the electrical system.
The force balanced equation for
this system is
F=Fm+Fb+Fk
• ⇒F=Md2x/dt2+Bdx/dt+Kx  (Equation 1)
• Consider the following electrical system as
shown in the following figure.
• This circuit consists of a resistor, an inductor
and a capacitor.
• All these electrical elements are connected in a
series.
• The input voltage applied to this circuit
is V volts and the current flowing through the
circuit is ’i ’Amps.
• Mesh equation for this circuit is
• V=Ri+Ldi/dt+1/c∫idt (Equation 2)
• Substitute, i=dq/dt  in Equation 2.
• V=Rdq/dt+Ld2q/dt2+q/C
• V=Ld2q/dt2+Rdq/dt+(1/c)q (Equation 3)
By comparing Equation 1 and Equation 3, we will get the analogous quantities of the translational mechanical system and electrical system.
The following table shows these analogous quantities.

Translational Mechanical Electrical System

System
Force(F) Voltage(V)
Mass(M) Inductance(L)
Frictional Coefficient(B) Resistance(R)
Spring Constant(K) Reciprocal of
Capacitance (1/c)
Displacement(x) Charge(q)
Velocity(v) Current(i)
 Torque Voltage Analogy
• In this analogy, the mathematical equations
of rotational mechanical system are
compared with mesh equations of the electrical
system.
• Rotational mechanical system is shown in the
following figure.
• T=Tj+Tb+Tk
• ⇒T=Jd2θ/dt2+Bdθ/dt+kθ--------(4)
• By comparing Equation 4 and Equation 3, we
will get the analogous quantities of rotational
mechanical system and electrical system. The
following table shows these analogous
quantities
 Rotational Mechanical Electrical System
System
Torque(T) Voltage(V)

Moment of Inertia(J) Inductance(L)

Rotational friction Resistance(R)

coefficient(B)
Torsional spring constant(K) Reciprocal of
Capacitance (1/c)
Angular Displacement(θ) Charge(q)

Angular Velocity(ω) Current(i)

 Force Current Analogy

• In force current analogy, the mathematical equations of

the translational mechanical system are compared
with the nodal equations of the electrical system.
• Consider the following electrical system as shown in
the following figure. This circuit consists of current
source, resistor, inductor and capacitor. All these
electrical elements are connected in parallel.
 The nodal equation is

i=V/R+1/L∫Vdt+CdV/dt------(5)

Substitute, V=dΨ/dt

i=1/RdΨ/dt+(1/L)Ψ+Cd2Ψ/dt2

⇒i=Cd2Ψ/dt2+(1/R)dΨ/dt+(1/L)Ψ----(6)

By comparing Equation 1 and Equation 6, we will get the analogous quantities of

the translational mechanical system and electrical system. The following table
shows these analogous quantities.
Translational Mechanical System Electrical System

Force(F) Current(i)

Mass(M) Capacitance(C)

Frictional coefficient(B) Reciprocal of Resistance(1/R)

Spring constant(K) Reciprocal of Inductance(1/L)

Displacement(x) Magnetic Flux(ψ)

Velocity(v) Voltage(V)
 Torque Current Analogy

• In this analogy, the mathematical equations of

the rotational mechanical system are compared
with the nodal mesh equations of the electrical
system.
• By comparing Equation 4 and Equation 6, we will
get the analogous quantities of rotational
mechanical system and electrical system. The
following table shows these analogous quantities.
 Rotational Mechanical System Electrical System

Torque(T) Current(i)

Moment of inertia(J) Capacitance(C)

Rotational friction coefficient(B) Reciprocal of Resistance(1/R)

Torsional spring constant(K) Reciprocal of Inductance(1/L)

Angular displacement(θ) Magnetic flux(ψ)

Angular velocity(ω) Voltage(V)

• A servomotor (or servo motor) is a 
rotary actuator or linear actuator that allows for
precise control of angular or linear position,
velocity and acceleration. 
• It consists of a suitable motor coupled to a sensor
for position feedback. It also requires a relatively
sophisticated controller, often a dedicated
module designed specifically for use with
servomotors.
• Servomotors are not a specific class of motor,
although the term servomotor is often used to
refer to a motor suitable for use in a 
closed-loop control system.
• A servomotor (or servo motor) is a simple electric motor,
controlled with the help of servomechanism.
• If the motor as a controlled device, associated with
servomechanism is DC motor, then it is commonly known as a DC
Servo Motor. If AC operates the controlled motor, it is known as a
AC Servo Motor.
• Servo motors are part of a closed-loop control system and consist
of several parts namely a control circuit, a servo motor, a shaft, a
potentiometer, a drive gear, an amplifier, and either an encoder or
a resolver. A servomotor is a self-contained electrical device that
rotates parts of a machine with high efficiency and great precision.
• The output shaft of this motor can be moved to a specific angle, position, and
velocity that a normal motor does not have. The servo motor uses a regular
motor and couples it with a sensor for position feedback.
• The controller is the most important part of the servo motor specially designed
and used for this purpose. The servo motor is a closed-loop mechanism that
incorporates position feedback to control rotational or linear speed and
position.
• The motor is controlled with an electrical signal, either analog or digital, that
determines the amount of movement that represents the final commanded
position for the shaft. A type of encoder serves as a sensor that provides speed
and position feedback. This circuit is built directly into the motor housing,
which is usually equipped with a gear system.
Mechanism Of Servo Motor

• A servomotor is a closed-loop servomechanism that uses

position feedback to control its motion and final position.

• The input to its control is a signal (either analog or digital)

representing the position commanded for the output shaft.

• The motor is paired with some type of position encoder to

provide position and speed feedback. In the simplest case, only
the position is measured.

• The measured position of the output is compared to the

command position, the external input to the controller.
• If the output position differs from that required, an error signal is generated

which then causes the motor to rotate in either direction, as needed to bring the

output shaft to the appropriate position.

• As the positions approach, the error signal reduces to zero, and the motor stops.

• The very simplest servomotors use position-only sensing via a potentiometer

and bang-bang control of their motor; the motor always rotates at full speed (or

is stopped).

• This type of servomotor is not widely used in industrial motion control, but it

forms the basis of the simple and cheap servos used for radio-controlled

models.

• More sophisticated servo motors use optical rotary encoders to measure the

speed of the output shaft and a variable-speed drive to control the motor speed.
• Both of these enhancements, usually in combination with a PID control 
algorithm, allow the servomotor to be brought to its commanded
position more quickly and more precisely, with less overshooting.
• How Does A Servo Motor Work?
• A servo motor is an electromechanical device that generates torque and
velocity based on the supplied current and voltage. A servo motor
operates as part of closed-loop control, providing torque and velocity as
commanded by a servo controller which uses a feedback device to close
the loop.
• The feedback device provides information such as current, velocity, or
position to the servo controller, which adjusts the motor action
depending on the commanded parameters.
 Advantages Of Servo Motor

Servo Motor advantages are:

• High output power relative to motor size and weight.
• Encoder determines accuracy and resolution.
• High efficiency. It can approach 90% at light loads.
• High torque to inertia ratio. Servo Motors can rapidly accelerate loads.
• Has 2-3 times more continuous power for short periods.
• Has 5-10 times more rated torque for short periods.
• Servo motors achieve high speed at high torque values.
• Quiet at high speeds.
• Encoder utilization provides higher accuracy and resolution with closed-loop
control.
 Disadvantages Of Servo Motor
The top Servo Motor disadvantages are:
• Servos Motors requires tuning to stabilize the feedback loop.
• Servo Motor will become unpredictable when something breaks. So, safety
circuits are required.
• Complex controller requires encoder and electronic support.
• Peak torque is limited to a 1% duty cycle. Servo Motors can be damaged by
sustained overload.
• Gear boxes are often required to deliver power at higher speeds.
• Higher overall system cost and the installation cost of a Servo Motor system
may be higher than that of a stepper motor due to the requirement for feedback
components.
 Common Industrial Applications For Servo Motors

Robotics: 

• A servo motor at every “joint” of a robot is used to actuate movements, giving the robot arm its precise angle.

Conveyor Belts: 

• Servo motors move, stop, and start conveyor belts carrying product along to various stages, for example, in

product packaging/bottling, and labeling.

Camera Auto Focus: 

• A highly precise servo motor built into the camera corrects a camera’s lens to sharpen out-of-focus images.

Robotic Vehicle: 

• Commonly used in military applications and bomb detonation, servo motors control the wheels of the robotic

vehicle. And generating enough torque to move, stop, and start the vehicle smoothly as well as control its speed.

Solar Tracking System: 

• Servo motors adjust the angle of solar panels throughout the day so that each panel continues to face the sun,

harnessing maximum energy from sunup to sundown.

Metal Cutting & Metal Forming Machines: 

Servo motors provide precise motion control for milling machines, lathes, grinding, centering, 

punching, pressing, and bending in metal fabrication for such items as jar lids to automotive
wheels.

Antenna Positioning: 

• Servo motors are used on both the azimuth and elevation drive axis of antennas and telescopes
such as those used by the National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO).

Woodworking/CNC: 

• Servo motors control woodturning mechanisms (lathes) that shape table legs and stair spindles.
For example, as well as augering and drilling the holes necessary for assembling those products
later in the process.

Textiles: 

• Servo motors control industrial spinning and weaving machines, looms, and knitting machines
that produce textiles such as carpeting and fabrics as well as wearable items such as socks, caps,
gloves, and mittens.
Printing Presses/Printers: 
• Servo motors stop and start the print heads precisely on the
page as well as move paper along to print multiple rows of text
or graphics in exact lines, whether it’s a newspaper, a magazine,
or an annual report.

Automatic Door Openers: 

• Supermarkets and hospital entrances are prime examples of
automated door openers controlled by servo motors. Whether
the signal to open is via push plate beside the door for
handicapped access or by radio transmitter positioned overhead.
Requirements for good servo motor:
• Linear relationship between electrical control signal and rotor
speed over a wide range.
• Rotor inertia should be low as possible.
• The response should be fast as much as possible.
• Should be easily reversible.

• Torque – speed characteristic should be linear.

• Stable operation
 Types of servo motor

• Servo motor
A.c servo motor
D.c servo motor
Armature controlled
field controlled
Special servo motors
 D.C Servo motor
• T.F of field controlled D.C servo motor
• Ra=resistance of armature
• La=inductance of armature winding
• ia=armature current
• If=field current
• Ea=applied armature voltage
• Eb=back emf
• Tm=torque developed by motor
• Ө=angular displacement of motor shaft
• J=equivalent moment of inertia and load referred to
motor shaft
• f=equivalent viscous friction coefficient of motor and
load referred to motor shaft
A.C Servo motor
Comparison between A.C & D.C servo motor

s.no A.C Servo D.C Servo

1 Deliver low power Deliver high power

2 Efficiency is low Efficiency is high

3 Maintenance is less due to Frequent maintenance is required

absence of commutator

4 Stability problems are less More stability problems are

5 No radio frequency noise Brushes produce radio frequency noise

6 Relatively stable and smooth Noise operation

operation

7 A.C amplifiers are used so no Amplifiers are have drift

drift
 Comparison between armature control and field control DC servo
motor

s.no Field control Armature control

1 Due to low power amplifiers Due to high power amplifiers are

design is simple require to design

2 Control voltage is applied to Control voltage is applied to armature

field
3 Time constant is large Time constant is small

4 Open loop system Closed loop system

5 Armature current is kept constant Field current is kept constant

6 Poor efficiency Better efficiency

7 Suitable for small rated motor Suitable for large rated motor

8 Field coils are costly PM is used so less expensive

 Synchros
• Definition: 
 The Synchro is a type of
transducer which transforms the angular position of the
shaft into an electric signal.
 It is used as an error detector and as a rotary position
sensor. The error occurs in the system because of the
misalignment of the shaft.
 The transmitter and the control transformer are the two main parts
of the synchro.
The synchro system is of two types. They are
(1)Control Type Synchro. (2)Torque Transmission Type Synchro.
Torque Transmission Type Synchros
• This type of synchros has small output torque, and hence they are
used for running the very light load like a pointer. The control type
Synchro is used for driving the large loads.
Control Type Synchros System
• The controls synchros is used for error detection in positional control
systems. Their systems consist two units. They are
• Synchro Transmitter
• Synchro receiver
• The synchro always works with these two parts. The detail
explanation of synchros transmitter and receiver is given below.
Synchros Transmitter
• Their construction is similar to the three phase alternator.
• The stator of the synchros is made of steel for reducing the iron
losses.
• The stator is slotted for housing the three phase windings. The axis
of the stator winding is kept 120º apart from each other.

• The AC voltage is applied to the rotor of the transmitter and it

is expressed as
• The coils of the stator windings are connected in star.
• The rotor of the synchros is a dumbbell in shape, and a
concentric coil is wound on it.
• The AC voltage is applied to the rotor with the help of slip
rings. The constructional feature of the synchros is shown in
the figure below.
• The voltage applied to the rotor induces the magnetizing current and
an alternating flux along its axis.
• The voltage is induced in the stator winding because of the mutual
induction between the rotor and stator flux.
• The flux linked in the stator winding is equal to the cosine of the
angle between the rotor and stator.
• The voltage is induced in the stator winding.
• Let Vs1, Vs2, Vs3 be the voltages generated in the stator windings S1, S2,
and S3 respectively.
• The figure below shows the rotor position of the synchro transmitter.
The rotor axis makes an angle θr concerning the stator windings S2.
• The variation in the stator terminal axis
concerning the rotor is

• When the rotor angle becomes zero, the

maximum current is produced in the stator
windings S2.
• The zero position of the rotor is used as a
reference for determining the rotor angular
position.
• The current of the same and magnitude flow through the
transmitter and control transformer of the synchros.
• Because of the circulating current, the flux is established
between the air gap flux of the control transformer.
• The flux axis of the control transformer and the
transmitter is aligned in the same position.
• The voltage generates by the rotor of control transformer
is equal to the cosine of the angle between the rotors of
the transmitter and the controller.
• Where φ – angular displacement between the rotor axes of transmitter and
controller.
• Φ – 90º the axis between the rotor of transmitter and control transformer is
perpendicular to each other.
• The above figure shows the zero position of the rotor of transmitter and
receiver.
• Consider the position of the rotor and the transmitter is changing in the same
direction.

• An angle θR deflects the rotor of the transmitter and that of the control
transformer is kept θC.

• The total angular separation between the rotors is Φ = (90º – θR + θC)

• The rotor terminal voltage of the Synchro transformer is given
as 

• The small angular displacement between their rotor position is

given as Sin (θR – θC) = (θR – θC)
• On substituting the value of angular displacement in equation
we get

• The synchro transmitter and the control transformer together

used for detecting the error. The voltage equation shown above
is equal to the shaft position of the rotors of control transformer
and transmitter.
• The error signal is applied to the differential amplifier which
gives input to the servo motor. The gear of the servo motor
rotates the rotor of the control transformer
• The figure above shows the output of the synchro error detector
which is a modulated signal. The modulating wave above shown
the misalignment between the rotor position and the carrier
wave.
Block Diagram Reduction
Techniques
• What is a Block Diagram in a Control System?
• A block diagram is used to represent a control system in diagram
form.

• It is the practical representation of a control system.

• Each element of the control system is represented with a block

and the block is the symbolic representation of the transfer
function of that element.

• It is not always convenient to derive a complex control system’s

entire transfer function in a single function.

• It is easier to derive the transfer function of the control element

connected to the system separately.
• Block
• The transfer function of a component is represented by a block.
Block has single input and single output.
• The following figure shows a block having input X(s), output
Y(s) and the transfer function G(s).
• Summing Point
• The summing point is represented with a circle having cross
(X) inside it. It has two or more inputs and single output. It
produces the algebraic sum of the inputs. It also performs the
summation or subtraction or combination of summation and
subtraction of the inputs based on the polarity of the inputs.
Let us see these three operations one by one.
• The following figure shows the summing point with two
inputs (A, B) and one output (Y). Here, the inputs A and B
have a positive sign. So, the summing point produces the
output, Y as sum of A and B.
Take-off Point
• The take-off point is a point from which the same input signal can be
passed through more than one branch. That means with the help of
take-off point, we can apply the same input to one or more blocks,
summing points.
• In the following figure, the take-off point is used to connect the same
input, R(s) to two more blocks
Block Diagram Reduction Rules:

• Rule 1 − Check for the blocks connected in series and simplify.

• Rule 2 − Check for the blocks connected in parallel and simplify.

• Rule 3 − Check for the blocks connected in feedback loop and simplify.

• Rule 4 − If there is difficulty with take-off point while simplifying, shift

it towards right.

• Rule 5 − If there is difficulty with summing point while simplifying,

shift it towards left.

• Rule 6 − Repeat the above steps till you get the simplified form, i.e.,

single block.
• Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Let
us simplify (reduce) this block diagram using the block
diagram reduction rules.
Simple system:

R(s) C(s)
G(s)
G(s)=C(s)/R(s)

Complex System:

G4
R(s) Y(s)
G1 G2 G3

H2

H1
Block Diagram Reduction techniques
1. Combining blocks which are in cascade or in parallel

G1 G2 G1G2

G1
G1  G2
G2

2. Moving a summing point behind a block

G G
G
3. Moving a summing point ahead of a block

G G
1
G

4. Moving a pickoff point behind a block

G G
1
G

5. Moving a pickoff point ahead of a block

G G
G
6. Eliminating a feedback loop

G
G
1 GH
H

G
G
1 G

H 1

7. Swapping with two adjacent summing points

A B B A
 Example 1
Find the transfer function of the following block diagrams

(a)

G4
R (s ) Y(s)
G1 G2 G3

H2
H1
 I
G4
R(s) B A
Y(s)
G1 G2 G3
H2
H1 G2

Solution:

1. Apply the rule that Moving pickoff/takeoff point ahead of block

2. Eliminate loop I & simplify as G2

B
G
4
G2G3
 G4
R(s) Y(s)
GG
4
A G
GG
B
G1 2
2 3
3

H2
H1G2

3. Moving pickoff point B behind block G

4
G2G3

II
R(s) B C
Y(s)
G1 G
4
G2G3

H2
H1G2 1
/(
G
4G
G
23)
 4. Eliminate loop III

R(s) Y(s)
G1 G
G
4 
4
G G
G
22G
33
C C

1
H2(GH42G2G3)
G2H1
G4 G2G3
Using rule 6

R(s) G(
1G4GG
23) Y(s)
1
G
1G
2H
1 H(
2G4G
2G
3)

Y (s) G1 (G4  G2 G3 )
T (s)  
R ( s ) 1  G1G 2 H 1  H 2 (G4  G2 G3 )  G1 (G 4  G2 G3 )
 (b)

R(s) Y(s)
G1 G2

H1 H2

H3
Solution:

1. Eliminate loop I

R(s) A
G2 I
B
Y(s)
G1 G2
H1
1GH2H
2
2

H3
G2
2. Moving pickoff point A behind block
1G2H2
R(s) A G2 B
Y(s)
G1
1G2H2

1G2H2 II
H1 1  G2 H 2
G2 H 3  H1 ( )
G2
H3 Not a feedback loop
 3. Eliminate loop II

R(s) G1G2 Y(s)

1G2H2

H(1
G H)
H
3 1 2 2

G2

Using rule 6

Y (s) G1G2
T (s)  
R(s) 1 G2 H2  G1G2 H3  G1H1  G1G2 H1H2
 (c)

H4
R(s) Y(s)
G1 G2 G3 G4

H3

H2

H1
Solution:

1. Moving pickoff point A behind block G4

I
H4
R(s) Y(s)
A B
G1 G2 G3 G4
H 3 1
H3 G4 G 4
H2 H 2 1
G4 G 4
H1
Solution:

1. Moving pickoff point A behind block G4

I
H4
R(s) Y(s)
A B
G1 G2 G3 G4
H 3 1
H3 G4 G 4
H2 H 2 1
G4 G 4
H1
Solution:

1. Moving pickoff point A behind block G4

I
H4
R(s) Y(s)
B
G1 G2 G3G4

H 3 1
H3 G4 G 4
H2 H 2 1
G4 G 4
H1
Solution:

1. Moving pickoff point A behind block G4

I

R(s) Y(s)
G 3G 4 B
G1 G2 2
1  G 3G 4 H 4
H 3 1
H3 G4 G 4
H2 H 2 1
G4 G 4
H1
 2. Eliminate loop I and Simplify

R(s) II Y(s)
G2G3G4 B
G1
1  G3G4 H 4
H 3
G 4

H 2
G 4 III
H1

II feedback III Not feedback

G G
2 G
3 4 H2 G 4H1
1
GG
3 H
4 4G G
2 H
3 3 G4
 3. Eliminate loop II & III

R(s) G G G G Y(s)
1 2 3 4

1
GG
3 H
4 4G G
2 H
3 3

H2 G 4H1

G4

Using rule 6

Y (s) G1G2G3G4
T (s)  
R(s) 1 G2G3H3  G3G4 H4  G1G2G3H2  G1G2G3G4 H1
 (d)

H2

R(s) A Y(s)
G1 G2 G3 B

H1

G4
Solution:

1. Moving pickoff point A behind block G3

I
H2

R(s) A B Y(s)
G1 G2 G3
1
H1 G3
1
H1 G3
G4
 2. Eliminate loop I & Simplify

H2

G2 G3 B G2G3 B

1 H1
 H2
H1 G3 G3
II
R(s) G G Y(s)
G1 2 3
1
GH
2 1G2GH
3 2

H1
G3

G4
3. Eliminate loop II

R(s) G1G 2 G 3 Y(s)

1  G 2 H 1  G 2 G 3 H 2  G1G 2 H 1

G4

Y (s) G1G2G3
T (s)   G4 
R(s) 1 G2 H1  G2G3H2  G1G2 H1
Delta Values

• The Delta value of a system, denoted with a Greek Δ is computed as follows:

• Δ =1-A+B-C+D-E+F......+∞

Where:

• A is the sum of all individual loop gains

• B is the sum of the products of all the pairs of2 non-touching loops

• C is the sum of the products of all the sets of 3 non-touching loops

• D is the sum of the products of all the sets of 4 non-touching loops

• et cetera.
Mason's Rule

• Mason's rule is a rule for determining the gain of a system. Mason's rule can be used with

block diagrams, but it is most commonly (and most easily) used with signal flow diagrams.

• has related information at Mason's rule

• If we have computed our delta values (above), we can then use Mason's Gain Rule to find

the complete gain of the system:

• [Mason's Rule]

• {\displaystyle M={\frac {y_{out}}{y_{in}}}=\sum _{k=1}^{N}{\frac {M_{k}\Delta \ _{k}}{\Delta

\ }}}Where M is the total gain of the system, represented as the ratio of the output gain

(yout) to the input gain (yin) of the system. Mk is the gain of the kth forward path, and Δk is

the loop gain of the kth loop.

 Time Response Analysis

• the control systems response can analyze in two ways the time
domain and the frequency domain. frequency response analysis
of control systems time response analysis of control systems.
What is Time Response
• If the output of control system for an input varies with respect to
time, then it is called the time response of the control system.
The time response consists of two parts.
• Transient response
• Steady state response
Transient Response

• After applying input to the control system, output takes certain

time to reach steady state. So, the output will be in transient state
till it goes to a steady state. Therefore, the response of the control
system during the transient state is known as transient response.

• The transient response will be zero for large values of ‘t’. Ideally,
this value of ‘t’ is infinity and practically, it is five times constant.

• Mathematically, we can write it as

Steady state Response
• The part of the time response that remains even after the transient
response has zero value for large values of ‘t’ is known as steady
state response. This means, the transient response will be zero
even during the steady state.

Standard Test Signals

• The standard test signals are impulse, step, ramp and
parabolic. These signals are used to know the performance of

the control systems using time response of the output.

 • Unit Impulse Signal

the unit impulse signal exists only at ‘t’ is equal to zero. The area of this signal under small
interval of time around ‘t’ is equal to zero is one. The value of unit impulse signal is zero for all
other values of ‘t’.
 Unit Step Signal

the unit step signal exists for all positive values of ‘t’ including zero. And its value is one
during this interval. The value of the unit step signal is zero for all negative values of ‘t’.
Unit Ramp Signal

 the unit ramp signal exists for all positive

values of ‘t’ including zero. And its value
increases linearly with respect to ‘t’
during this interval. The value of unit
ramp signal is zero for all negative values
of ‘t’.
Unit Parabolic Signal

the unit parabolic signal exists for all the positive

values of ‘t’ including zero. And its value increases
non-linearly with respect to ‘t’ during this interval.
The value of the unit parabolic signal is zero for all
the negative values of ‘t’.
 Response of the First Order System
• let us discuss the time response of the first order system. Consider
the following block diagram of the closed loop control system.
Here, an open loop transfer function, 1/sT is connected with a
unity negative feedback.
Impulse Response of First Order System
Step Response of First Order System
Ramp Response of First Order System
Parabolic Response of First Order System
• From these responses, we can conclude that the first order
control systems are not stable with the ramp and parabolic
inputs because these responses go on increasing even at
infinite amount of time.
• The first order control systems are stable with impulse and
step inputs because these responses have bounded output.
• But, the impulse response doesn’t have steady state term.
So, the step signal is widely used in the time domain for
analyzing the control systems from their responses
Response of Second Order System
• The power of ‘s’ is two in the denominator term. Hence, the
above transfer function is of the second order and the system
is said to be the second order system.
• The characteristic equation is -
Step Response of Second Order System
 Transient response specifications of second-order control system.

• The performance of the control system can be expressed in the term of

transient response to a unit step input function because it is easy to
generate.
• Let us consider a second-order control system in which a unit step input
signal is given and it is also considered that the system is initially at rest.
• That is all initial conditions of the system are zero. The time response
characteristics of the system at under damped condition is drawn below.
• There are number of common terms in transient response characteristics and which are

• Delay time (td) is the time required to reach at 50% of its final value by a time response signal

during its first cycle of oscillation.

• Rise time (tr) is the time required to reach at final value by a under damped time response

signal during its first cycle of oscillation. If the signal is over damped, then rise time is

counted as the time required by the response to rise from 10% to 90% of its final value.

• Peak time (tp) is simply the time required by response to reach its first peak i.e. the peak of

first cycle of oscillation, or first overshoot.

• Maximum overshoot (Mp) is straight way difference between the magnitude of the highest

peak of time response and magnitude of its steady state. Maximum overshoot is expressed in

term of percentage of steady-state value of the response. As the first peak of response is

normally maximum in magnitude, maximum overshoot is simply normalized difference

between first peak and steady-state value of a response.

• Settling time (ts) is the time required for a response to become steady. It is
defined as the time required by the response to reach and steady within
specified range of 2 % to 5 % of its final value.

• Steady-state error (e ss ) is the difference between actual output and

desired output at the infinite range of time.
• The deviation of the output of control system
from desired response during steady state is
known as steady state error.

• It is represented as ess.

• We can find steady state error using the final

value theorem as follows.
 What is Stability?

• A system is said to be stable, if its output is under

control. Otherwise, it is said to be unstable.
• A stable system produces a bounded output for a given
bounded input.
• Stability is the most important issue for control systems
• If a system is unstable then it is not useful (in general)If
a system is unstable, our first concern in controller
design is to stabilize it.
• For a stable system the response is predictable.

• The stability of a system can be thought as a continuity in its

dynamic behaviour. If a small perturbation arises in the system
inputs or initial conditions, a stable system will present small
modifications in its perturbed response.
• A system is said to be stable if for a bounded disturbing input signal
the output vanishes ultimately as time tends to infinity.
• A system is said to be unstable if for a bounded disturbing input
signal the output is of infinite amplitude or oscilatory.i.e for a
bounded input, it produces unbounded out put and in the absence of
input the output may not return to zero.
• In an unstable Stable system, any perturbation, no matter how
small, will make states or outputs grow unbounded or until the
system disintegrates or saturates.
• Stability is a basic requirement of dynamic systems that
perform operations or process signals; the first objective in
control design.
• Recall that the response of a LTI system is composed of
response to initial conditions + response to inputs
• The concept of Input-Output Stability refers to stability of the
response to inputs only, assuming zero initial conditions.
BIBO Stability:
• For a system said to be BIBO stable if it satisfies for bounded
input the out put is bounded and it should be controllable and
in the absence of input the put must tends to zero irrespective
of any initial conditions.

Critically or marginally stable system:

• For a bounded input the output oscillates with constant
frequency and amplitude. such oscillations are called damped
oscillations or sustained oscillations.
Conditionally stable system.:
• Output is bounded only for certain conditions other than this
conditions output is unbunded. So stability is depends on condition
of parameter of the system.
Zero input stability:
• If the zero input response of the system subjected to finite initial
conditions and it reaches to zero as time tends ti infinity then the
system is said to be zero input stable.
Asymptotic stability:
• As magnitude of zero input response reaches to zero as time tends to
infinity then zero input stability is also called asymptotic stability.
 Types of Systems based on Stability

We can classify the systems based on stability as

follows.
• Absolutely stable system
• Conditionally stable system

• Marginally stable system

Absolutely Stable System

• If the system is stable for all the range of system component values, then it is

known as the absolutely stable system. The open loop control system is

absolutely stable if all the poles of the open loop transfer function present in

left half of ‘s’ plane. Similarly, the closed loop control system is absolutely

stable if all the poles of the closed loop transfer function present in the left half

of the ‘s’ plane.

Conditionally Stable System

• If the system is stable for a certain range of system component values, then it is

known as conditionally stable system.

Marginally Stable System

• If the system is stable by producing an output signal with

constant amplitude and constant frequency of oscillations for

bounded input, then it is known as marginally stable system.

The open loop control system is marginally stable if any two

poles of the open loop transfer function is present on the

imaginary axis. Similarly, the closed loop control system is

marginally stable if any two poles of the closed loop transfer

function is present on the imaginary axis.

 Frequency Response Analysis in control system
Definition of Frequency Response Analysis: 
• The steady-state response of a system to a purely sinusoidal input
is defined as the frequency response of a system.
• In such a method frequency of the input signal is to be varied
over a certain range and the resulting response of the system is to
be studied. Such a response is called frequency response. 
• Frequency response of the system is defined as the response of
the system when standard sinusoidal signals are applied to it with
constant amplitude over a range of frequencies.
• The frequency response indicates the steady-state response of a system to
a sinusoidal input.

• The characteristics and performance of the industrial control system are

analysed by using the frequency response techniques.

• Frequency response analysis is used in ­numerous systems and

components such as audio and video amplifiers, speakers, sound cards
and servomotors.

• The different techniques available for frequency response analysis lend

themselves to a simplest procedure for experimental testing and analysis.

• In addition, the stability and relative stability of the system for the
sinusoidal input can be analysed by using different frequency plots.
• Frequency Response Representation
• The frequency response analysis of a system is used to determine
the system gain and phase angle of the system at different
frequencies. Hence, the system gain and phase angle can be
represented either in a tabular form or graphical form.
• Tabular form: It is useful in representing the system gain and
phase angle of a system at different frequencies only if the data set
is relatively small. It is also useful in experimental measurement.
• Graphical form: It provides a convenient way to view the
frequency response data. There are many ways of representing the
frequency response in the graphical form.
 Comparison between time response analysis and frequency response analysis.

S. No Time Response Analysis Frequency Response Analysis

Determining the response of higher-order Determining the response of higher

1
systems is more difficult. order systems is much easier.

No unified method exists for designing a Graphical method exits for designing
2 system that meets the time-domain the system in order to meet its
specifications. specifications.

Less convenient in measuring the More convenient in measuring the

3 sensitivity of the system for noise and sensitivity of the system for noise and
parameter variations. parameter variations.

Real data obtained for the physical

Mathematical model is necessary for
4 systems are enough for analysing the
analysing the performance of the system.
performance of the system.

5 It can not be applied on non-linear system. It can be applied on non-linear system.

 What is a Bode Plot
• A Bode plot is a graph commonly used in
control system engineering to determine the stability of a
control system.
• A Bode plot maps the frequency response of the system through two
graphs – the
• Bode magnitude plot (expressing the magnitude in decibels)
• Bode phase plot (expressing the phase shift in degrees).
• Bode plots were first introduced in the 1930s by Hendrik Wade Bode.
• Although Bode plots offer a relatively simple method to calculate
system stability, they can not handle transfer functions with right half
plane singularities.
 Bode Stability Criterion
Stability conditions are given below:
• For a Stable System: Both the margins should be positive or
phase margin should be greater than the gain margin.
• For Marginal Stable System: Both the margins should be
zero or phase margin should be equal to the gain margin.
• For Unstable System: If any of them is negative or phase
margin should be less than the gain margin.
• Gain Margin: Greater will the gain margin greater will be the stability of the
system. It refers to the amount of gain, which can be increased or decreased
without making the system unstable. It is usually expressed in dB.
• Phase Margin: Greater will the phase margin greater will be the stability of the
system. It refers to the phase which can be increased or decreased without
making the system unstable. It is usually expressed in phase.
• Gain Crossover Frequency: It refers to the frequency at which the magnitude
curve cuts the zero dB axis in the bode plot.
• Phase Crossover Frequency: It refers to the frequency at which phase curve
cuts the negative times the 180o axis in this plot.
• Corner Frequency: The frequency at which the two asymptotes cuts or meet
each other is known as break frequency or corner frequency.

• Resonant Frequency: The value of frequency at which the modulus of G

(jω) has a peak value is known as the resonant frequency.

• Factors: Every loop transfer function {i.e. G(s) × H(s)} product of various
factors like constant term K, Integral factors (jω), first-order factors ( 1 +
jωT)(± n) where n is an integer, second-order or quadratic factors.

• Slope: There is a slope corresponding to each factor and slope for each factor
is expressed in the dB per decade.

• Angle: There is an angle corresponding to each factor and angle for each

factor is expressed in the degrees.
• Constant term K: This factor has a slope of zero dB per decade.
There is no corner frequency corresponding to this constant term.
The phase angle associated with this constant term is also zero.
• Integral factor 1/(jω)n: This factor has a slope of -20 × n (where n is an integer)dB
per decade. There is no corner frequency corresponding to this integral factor. The

phase angle associated with this integral factor is -90 × n. Here n is also an integer .
• First order factor 1/ (1+jωT): This factor has a slope of -20 dB per decade.
The corner frequency corresponding to this factor is 1/T radian per second.
The phase angle associated with this first factor is -tan– 1(ωT).

• First order factor (1+jωT): This factor has a slope of 20 dB per decade.

The corner frequency corresponding to this factor is 1/T radian per
second. The phase angle associated with this first factor is tan – 1(ωT) .

• Second order or quadratic factor : [{1/(1+(2ζ/ω)} × (jω) + {(1/ω 2)} ×

(jω)2)]: This factor has a slope of -40 dB per decade. The corner
frequency corresponding to this factor is ω n radian per second. The
phase angle associated with this first factor is
• Substitute the s = jω in the open loop transfer function G(s) × H(s).

• Find the corresponding corner frequencies and tabulate them.

• Now we are required one semi-log graph chooses a frequency range such

that the plot should start with the frequency which is lower than the

lowest corner frequency. Mark angular frequencies on the x-axis, mark

slopes on the left hand side of the y-axis by marking a zero slope in the

middle and on the right hand side mark phase angle by taking -180 o in

the middle.

• Calculate the gain factor and the type of order of the system.

• Now calculate slope corresponding to each factor.

 Polar Plots

• The polar plot of sinusoidal transfer function

G(jω) is a plot of the magnitude of G(jω) verses
the phase angle of G(jω) on polar coordinates
as ω is varied from zero to infinity.
• Therefore it is the locus of as ω is varied from
zero to infinity
 Introduction
• A feedback control system that provides an optimum
performance without any necessary adjustment is rare.

• In building a control system, we know that proper

modification of the plant dynamics may be a simple way to
meet the performance specifications.

• This, however, may not be possible in many practical

situations because the plant may be fixed and not
modifiable.

• Then we must adjust parameters other than those in the

fixed plant.
 Introduction
• In previous lectures, we have discussed root locus
method for loop gain adjustment.

• We have found that to achieve the desired system

response, it is possible to adjust the system parameters
but it is often not enough.
 Introduction
• It is then required to reconsider the structure of the
system and redesign the system.

• The design problems, therefore, become those of

improving system performance by insertion of a
compensator.

• Compensator: A compensator is an additional

component or circuit that is inserted into a control
system to equalize or compensate for a deficient
performance.
 Introduction
• It is then required to reconsider the structure of the
system and redesign the system.

• The design problems, therefore, become those of

improving system performance by insertion of a
compensator.

• Compensator: A compensator is an additional

component or circuit that is inserted into a control
system to equalize or compensate for a deficient
performance.
 Introduction
• Necessities of compensation
• A system may be unsatisfactory in ：
Stability.
Speed of response.
Steady-state error.
• Thus the design of a system is concerned with the alteration
of the frequency response or the root locus of the system in
order to obtain a suitable system performance.
 Compensation via Root Locus
• Performance measures in the time domain:

– Peak time;

– Overshoot;

– Settling time for a step input;

– Steady-state error for test inputs

• These performance specifications can be defined in

terms of the desirable location of the poles and zeros of
the closed-loop.
• Root locus method can be used to find a suitable
compensator Gc(s) so that the resultant root locus results
in the desired closed-loop root configuration.
 Compensation via Root Locus
• The design by the root-locus method is based on
reshaping the root locus of the system by adding poles
and zeros to the system’s open-loop transfer function
and forcing the root loci to pass through desired closed-
loop poles in the s plane.

• The characteristic of the root-locus design is its being

based on the assumption that the closed-loop system
has a pair of dominant closed-loop poles.

• This means that the effects of zeros and additional poles

do not affect the response characteristics very much.
 Compensator Configurations
• Compensation schemes commonly used for feedback
control systems are:

– Series Compensation

– Parallel Compensation
 Compensator Configurations
• The choice between series compensation and parallel
compensation depends on
– the nature of the signals
– the power levels at various points
– available components
– the designer’s experience
– economic considerations and so on.
 Commonly Used Compensators
• Among the many kinds of compensators, widely
employed compensators are the
– lead compensators
– lag compensators
– lag–lead compensators
 Commonly Used Compensators
• Among the many kinds of compensators, widely
employed compensators are the
– lead compensators
• If a sinusoidal input is applied to the input of a network,
and the steady-state output (which is also sinusoidal)
has a phase lead, then the network is called a lead
network.
 Commonly Used Compensators
• Among the many kinds of compensators, widely
employed compensators are the
– lag compensators
• If the steady-state output has a phase lag, then the
network is called a lag network.
 Commonly Used Compensators
• Among the many kinds of compensators, widely
employed compensators are the
– lag–lead compensators
• In a lag–lead network, both phase lag and phase lead
occur in the output but in different frequency regions.

• Phase lag occurs in the low-frequency region and phase

lead occurs in the high-frequency region.
 Commonly Used Compensators
• We will limit our discussions mostly to lead, lag, and
lag–lead compensators realized by
– Electronic devices such as circuits using operational
amplifiers
– Electrical Networks (RC networks)
– Mechanical Networks (Spring-Mass-Damper Networks).
 Effect of Addition of Poles on Root Locus
• The addition of a pole to the open-loop transfer function has the
effect of pulling the root locus to the right, tending to lower the
system’s relative stability and to slow down the settling of the
response.