Testing and Performance of

I.C. Engines
 Testing and Performance of
I.C. Engines
The basic task in the design and development of
engines is to reduce the production cost and running
cost and to improve the efficiency, power output and
reliability of the engines.
In order to achieve the above goals the
development engineer has to try various design
concepts. To find the effect of a particular design
concept on engine performance he has to resort to
testing.
 In general the development engineer has to conduct a
wide variety of engine tests starting from simple fuel
measurement, air-flow measurement to taking of complicated
injector needle lift diagrams, swirl patterns and photographs
of the burnings process in the combustion chamber.
The nature and type of tests to be conducted depend
upon a large number of factors such as, the degree of
development of the particular design, the accuracy required,
the funds available, the nature of the manufacturing company
and its design strategy etc. Here certain basic and important
tests and measurements are considered.
1.Brake Power : The power developed by the engine at the
output shaft is called the brake power.
Measurement of brake power involves the determination of torque
and angular speed of the engine output shaft.
Brake power= T × ω
Brake power = 2×π NT Watts = 2 π N T kW
60 60×1000
where,
N= No. of revolutions of the crankshaft per minute(r.p.m.)
T= Braking torque in Newton-meters
=W × g × R
W = Load in kg
R= Brake drum radius in meters in Rope Brake Dynamometer and
Torque arm radius in Hydraulic Dynamometer and Eddy Current Dynamometer
 Brake Power
In Electrical Dynamometer (A.C. Generator) Brake
Power is calculated by using the following
equation.

Brake Power = V × I kW
1000 x ηG
where,
V= Voltage in Volts
I= Current in Amperes
ηG = Generator efficiency
2.Indicated Power : The total power developed by combustion
of
fuel in the combustion chamber is called as

indicated power.
Indicated power of an engine tells about the health of the engine and also gives an
indication regarding the conversion of chemical energy in the fuel into heat energy.
Indicated power is an important variable because it is the potential output of the
cycle.
There are two methods of finding indicated power of an engine.
(1) using the indicator diagram
(2) by measuring brake power and friction power separately and adding the two
Indicated power can also be calculated from the following equation.
Indicated Power =
Indicated mean effective pressure(Pm)× )× Stroke length(l) ×Cross Sectional Area
of Cylinder (a)×No. of Working Strokes Per Second (n)×No. of Cylinders (k)

Hence , I.P. = Pm(N/m2 ) × l(m) × a(m2 ) × n × k

Where n = N = N ------------ for four stroke engine (where N is rpm)

2×60 120
= N ------------ for two stroke engine (where N is rpm)
60
 3.Total Fuel Consumption (T.F.C.)
Total Fuel Consumption or simply Fuel Consumption is fuel consumed by the
engine during a specified time.
It is expressed in kg/hr or m3/hr.
Two basic types of fuel measurement methods are used.
(1) Gravimetric method - In Gravimetric method the weight of the fuel
consumed is directly measured.
(2) Volumetric method - In Volumetric method the fuel consumption is
measured by determining the volume flow in a given time interval. The
simplest volumetric method is the Burette method, where a glass burette
having bubs of known volume and having a mark on each side is used.
Time taken by the engine to consume this volume is measured by stop watch
Volume divided by time will give volumetric flow rate.
In order to avoid the error in sighting the fuel level against the mark on the burette
photocells are used.
Volume flow rate multiplied by density of fuel gives mass flow rate of fuel.
 Total Fuel Consumption (T.F.C.)

To calculate Fuel consumption in kg/hr by Volumetric Method.

Let us consider the time required for 50 cc fuel consumption is

t seconds.

Fuel consumed = 50 cm 3/sec

t
Density of fuel = 0.85 gm/cm3
Total fuel consumption = 50×Density of fuel×3600
1000 × t
= ----- kg/hr.
4.Friction Power : The difference between indicated power and brake
power of an engine is known as friction power.
Friction loss is made up of the friction between the piston and cylinder walls, piston
rings and cylinder walls, and between the crankshaft and camshaft and their bearings,
as well as by the loss incurred by driving the essential accessories, such as the water
pump, ignition unit, etc. It should be the aim of the designer to have minimum loss of
power in friction.

The following methods are used to find the friction power.

(1) Willan’s line method
(2) Morse test
(3) Motoring test
(4) Difference between indicated power and brake power
(5) Retardation test
 Willan’s Line Method
This method is also known as fuel rate extrapolation
method. In this method graph of gross fuel
consumption (Y-axis) verses brake power (X-axis) at
constant speed is plotted and it is extrapolated on the
negative axis of brake power ( i.e. extrapolated back
to zero fuel consumption). The point where this graph
cuts the Brake Power axis (X-axis) is an indication of
friction power of the engine at that speed.
 Morse Test
• In Morse test which is applicable to multicylinder engine, the
engine is first run at the required speed, and the output is
measured. Then one cylinder is cut-out by short-circuiting the
spark plug or by disconnecting the injector as the case may be.
Under this condition, all other cylinders motor this cut-out
cylinder. The output is measured by keeping the speed constant,
at its original value. The difference in the output is a measure of
the I.P. of the cut-out cylinder. Thus, for each cylinder the I.P. is
obtained and is added together to find the total I.P. of the
cylinder.
• By subtracting B.P. from this I.P., the frictional power
(F.P.) of this engine can be obtained.
 Morse Test
• When all the cylinders are working, we have,
BP = BP1st+BP2nd+BP3rd+BP4th
BP = (IP1st -FP1st) + (IP2nd -FP2nd) + (IP3rd -FP3rd)
+ (IP4th -FP4th) -- - - - - -- - - (1)

• When 1st cylinder is cut-out then brake power of engine,

BP1 = (BP2nd+BP3rd+BP4th) – FP1st
BP1= (IP2nd -FP2nd) + (IP3rd -FP3rd) + (IP4th -FP4th )
- FP1st ------------- (2)
Subtracting (2) from (1),
BP - BP1= IP1st -------------------------------- (3)
 Morse Test

Similarly,

BP - BP2= IP2nd ---------------------------------(4)

BP-BP3= IP3rd ---------------------------------(5)
BP-BP4= IP4th ----------------------------------- (6)
 

BP2= Brake power when 2nd cylinder is cut-out.

BP3= Brake power when 3rd cylinder is cut-out.
BP4= Brake power when 4th cylinder is cut-out.
 Morse Test

By adding equations (3) ,(4),(5) & (6) we get Indicated Power

of engine
 
Therefore, IP = 4 BP- (BP1+BP2+BP3+BP4)

Then Frictional power of engine,

Frictional Power= Indicated Power – Brake Power.

 
FP= IP - BP
 
5. Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (B.S.F.C.) :
Specific fuel consumption is defined as the amount of fuel
consumed per hour per unit of power developed.
S.F.C. = Fuel consumption in kg/hr = ---- kg/ kW- hr
Power developed in kW
B.S.F.C. = Fuel consumption in kg/hr = ---- kg/ kW- hr
Brake Power developed in kW
I.S.F.C. = Fuel consumption in kg/hr = ---- kg/ kW- hr
Indicated Power developed in kW
6. Thermal Efficiency :
It is defined as the ratio of power output to that of the chemical energy input in the form of
fuel supply (i.e. heat supplied).
From the definition it is clear that thermal efficiency of the engine indicates that how much
energy released by fuel is converted into useful power.
It may be based on brake power output or indicated power output. If it is based on brake
power output it is called as brake thermal efficiency and If it is based on indicated power
output it is called as indicated thermal efficiency .

Thermal efficiency = Heat equivalent of power output in unit time

Heat supplied to engine in unit time

Thermal efficiency = Power output in kW

Heat supplied to engine per second
= Power output in kW
Mass of fuel consumed (mf) in kg/sec × Calorific value of fuel (C.V.) in kJ/kg
 It may be based on brake power output or indicated power output. If it is
based on brake power output it is called as brake thermal efficiency and If it is
based on indicated power output it is called as indicated thermal efficiency .

Brake thermal efficiency = Heat equivalent of brake power in unit time

Heat supplied to engine in unit time

Brake thermal efficiency = Brake power in kW

Heat supplied to engine per second
= Brake power in kW
Mass of fuel consumed (mf) in kg/sec × Calorific value of fuel (C.V.) in kJ/kg

Indicated thermal efficiency = Indicated power in kW

Heat supplied to engine per second
= Indicated power in kW
Mass of fuel consumed (mf) in kg/sec × Calorific value of fuel (C.V.) in kJ/kg
7. Mechanical Efficiency :
Mechanical efficiency is defined as the ratio of brake power and indicated power.
The difference between indicated power and brake power is the indication of the
power lost in the mechanical components of the engine and forms the basis of
mechanical efficiency.

Mechanical efficiency = B.P.

I.P.

8. Relative Efficiency : The relative efficiency or efficiency ratio is the ratio of the
actual efficiency obtained from the engine (i.e. brake thermal efficiency )to the
theoretical efficiency of the engine cycle (i.e. air standard efficiency).
Relative Efficiency = Brake thermal efficiency
Air standard efficiency
9.Mean Effective Pressure :
Mean effective pressure is defined as a hypothetical pressure which is thought
to be acting on the piston throughout the power stroke.

It may be based on indicated power output or brake power

output. If it is based on indicated power output it is called as
indicated mean effective pressure and If it is based on brake
power output it is called as brake mean effective pressure.
Indicated Power =
Indicated mean effective pressure(P m)× )× Stroke length(l) ×Cross Sectional Area
of Cylinder (a)×No. of Working Strokes Per Second (n)×No. of Cylinders(k)

Hence , I.P.(watts) = P m(N/m2 ) × l(m) × a(m2 ) × n × k

Where n = N = N ------------ for four stroke engine (where N is rpm)

2×60 120
= N ------------ for two stroke engine (where N is rpm)
60
Brake Power =
Brake mean effective pressure(Pm)× )× Stroke length(l) ×Cross Sectional Area
of Cylinder (a)× No. of Working Strokes Per Second (n)× No. of Cylinders(k)

Hence , B.P. (watts) = P m(N/m2 ) × l(m) × a(m2 ) × n × k

Where n = N = N ------------ for four stroke engine (where N is rpm)

2×60 120
= N ----------------- for two stroke engine (where N is rpm)
60
10.Air-Fuel Ratio : It is the ratio of the mass of air to the
mass of fuel in the air-fuel mixture.
Air-fuel ratio = Mass of air consumed in unit time
Mass of fuel consumed in unit time
To find Mass of Air Consumed (ma) – Air Box Method
Step-I : To find density of air
Ideal gas equation PV = mRT --- (1)
Where P = atmospheric pressure in kN/m2
V = volume of m kg of air in m3
m = mass of air in kg
T = temperature in Kelvin
R = Characteristics gas constant
for air R = 0.287 kJ/kg K (In SI system)
= 29.27 Kg-m/kg/◦c ( In metric system)
From equation (1), m = P
v RT
ρa = P ----(since m/v = ρa)
RT
= ρgh
RT
= ----- kg/m3

Step-II : To find area of orifice

Area of orifice (A) = π × d2

4
= ------- m2
Step-III : To find air flow rate through orifice in m3/sec
Air flow rate through orifice , Q = Cd × A × Velocity of air
= Cd × A × √2gha
where , ha = head of air
Head of air(ha) can be calculated as follows.
Head of air(ha) × Density of air(ρa) = Head of water(hw) × Density of water(ρw)

ha = hw ρw = ------- m
ρa
Q = Cd × A × √2gha
= ----- m3/sec
Step-IV : To find air flow rate through orifice in kg/sec
Mass of air, ma = Q × ρa
= ------- kg/sec
 11.Volumetric Efficiency

Volumetric efficiency of an engine is an indication of the measure of the

degree to which the engine fills its swept volume. It is a very important
parameter, since it indicates the breathing capacity of the engine.
Volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio of the actual mass of air induced
into the engine cylinder during the suction stroke in a specified period of time
to the maximum possible mass of the air that should have been drawn into
the engine cylinder during the suction stroke of the engine in that same period
of time at the pressure and temperature of surrounding atmosphere.
In other words it is the ratio of the actual mass of air induced into the engine
cylinder during the suction stroke in a specified period of time to the mass of
air that should have been drawn into the engine cylinder during the suction
stroke in that same period of time corresponding to the swept volume of the
engine at the pressure and temperature of surrounding atmosphere.
Volumetric efficiency =

Actual mass of air induced into the engine cylinder × 100

Mass of air corresponding to swept volume at intake pressure and temperature
ma x 100
= π D2 × L × ρa × N × No. of cylinders
4 2 × 60
= -------------------- %
Note : Above equation is for 4-stroke engine.
For 2-stroke engine the term N is replaced by N
2 × 60 60
 12.Heat Balance Sheet

Heat energy is supplied to the engine by the combustion of fuel. Only a part
of this energy is converted into useful work at the engine crankshaft and
the remainder is lost. Two major losses are the heat carried away by cooling
water and heat carried away by exhaust gases. Other losses are energy loss
in friction and energy loss due to radiation. This means that total losses i.e.
non-useful energy leaving the system should be as small as possible.

The account of total energy supplied and its break-up into the useful
energy and the different losses is called as the heat balance.

Preparation of heat balance sheet gives us an idea about the amount of

energy wasted in various parts and allows us to think of methods to
reduce the losses so incurred.
a)Total Heat supplied to the engine(Qs)
= Total fuel consumption(mf)(Kg/sec)× Calorific

value of fuel(CV)(kJ/Kg)
b)Heat equivalent of break power(Qbp)
= Break Power (kW)
c)Heat carried away by cooling water(Qw)
= Flow rate of water(kg/sec) × Specific heat of water(Kj/kg-K)
× Rise in water temperature(K)
Qw= mw × Cpw × (Twoj – Twij)
 .

d) Heat carried away by exhaust gases(Q g)

= Flow rate of exhaust gases (kg/sec) × Specific heat of exhaust
gases(kJ/kg-K) × temperature of exhaust gases above the
atmospheric temperature (K)
Qg = mg × Cpg × (Tg – Tatm) [ m g = ma + mf]
= mg Cpg(Tg-Tatm)

Exhaust gas calorimeter which essentially is a heat exchanger is used to

calculate the term mg Cpg . In exhaust gas calorimeter exhaust gases are
cooled by circulating water. Assuming 100% heat exchange, we can write
the following equation.
Heat given by exhaust gases = Heat absorbed by water
mg Cpg(Tgic - Tgoc) = mwCpw(Twoc - Twic)
 .

e) Unaccounted heat losses (Qu)

= Heat supplied – (Heat equivalent of BP + Heat carried away by

water+ Heat carried away by exhaust gases)