Open-Channel Flow: Free Surface

CSE20354-HYDRULICS&HYDROLOGY Channel Flows : introduction
OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW
■ Open-channel flow is a flow of liquid (basically water) in a conduit with a free surface.
■ That is a surface on which pressure is equal to local atmospheric pressure. Since the pressure on the top surface of
water in a channel is constant, no pressure difference can be built up between any two sections along the channel
it will always be subjected to same resistance. As such in order to overcome the resistance and to cause the flow of
water in a channel, it is constructed with its bottom sloping towards the direction of flow, so that the component of
weight of the flowing water in the direction of flow is developed which causes the flow of water in channel.
Free surface
Patm
Patm
1
CSE20354-HYDRULICS&HYDROLOGY Channel Flows classification
Classification of Open-Channel Flows

Open-channel flows are characterized by the presence of a liquid-gas interface called the
free surface.
■ Natural flows: rivers, ■ Human-made systems:

creeks, etc. fresh-water aquaducts,
irrigation, sewers,
drainage ditches, etc.
p=patm
Open channels
Natural channels Artificial channels
Open cross section Covered cross section
3
Kinds of Open Channel: Artificial channels
■ Canal
■ Flume
■ Chute
■ Drop
■ Culvert
■ Open-Flow Tunnel
4
■ CANAL is usually a long and ■ FLUME is a channel usually

mild-sloped channel built in supported on or above the
surface of the ground to
the ground. carry water across a
depression.
5
■ CHUTE is a channel having steep ■ OPEN-FLOW TUNNEL is a comparatively

slopes. long covered channel used to carry
water through a hill or any obstruction
on the ground.
6
■ DROP is similar to a chute, but the ■ CULVERT is a covered channel flowing

change in elevation is affected in partly full, which is installed to drain
a short distance. water through highway and railroad
embankments.
7
CSE20354-HYDRULICS&HYDROLOGY Channel Flows: preliminary definitions
Total Head at A Cross Section:

P V 2
H=z+ ■ The total head at a cross section is:
γ +α
2g
■ where H=total head
Z=elevation of the channel bottom  = 1 from now on
P/g = y = the vertical depth of flow (provided
that pressure distribution is hydrostatic)
V2/2g= velocity head
h = stage
V2/2g EGL
y Q
h z
x
Datum 8
CSE20354-HYDRULICS&HYDROLOGY Channel Flows: preliminary definitions
Energy Grade Line & Hydraulic Grade Line in Open Channel Flow
Sf :the slope of energy grade line

Sw :the slope of the water surface
So :the slope of the bottom
Sf :the slope of energy grade line
Sw :the slope of the water surface
9
CSE20354-HYDRULICS&HYDROLOGY Channel Flows: geometry
Channel Geometry
■ A channel built with constant cross section and constant bottom

slope is called a PRISMATIC CHANNEL.
■ Otherwise, the channel is NONPRISMATIC.
10
■ THE CHANNEL SECTION is the cross section of a channel taken normal to the
direction of the flow.
■ THE VERTICAL CHANNEL SECTION is the vertical section passing through the lowest or
bottom point of the channel section.
The channel section (B-B)
The vertical channel section (A-

A)
11
Geometric Elements of Channel Section

■ THE DEPTH OF FLOW, y, is the vertical distance of the lowest point of a channel
section from the free surface.
 is the channel
bottom slope
d = ycos.
For mild-sloped
channels y ≈ d.
12
■ THE TOP WIDTH, B,

is the width of the channel section at the free
surface.
■ THE WATER AREA, A,
is the cross-sectional area of the flow

normal to the direction of flow. B
■ THE WETTED PERIMETER, P,
is the length of the line of intersection of the

channel wetted surface with a cross- sectional
plane normal to the direction of flow.
■ THE HYDRAULIC RADIUS, R = A/P,
is the ratio of the water area to its wetted
perimeter.
■ THE HYDRAULIC DEPTH, D = A/B,
is the ratio of the water area to the top

width.
13
rectangular trapezoidal triangular circular parabolic

B B B B B
h 1 h 1
D h
h
m
h 
b b
m
flow area 1 2
bh b  mhh mh 2   sin  D 2
Bh
A 8 3
1 8 h2
wetted perimeter b  2h b 1m D
2
2h 1 m 2
P 2h 2
*
B
3B
hydraulic radius b  mhh mh 1  sin   2B 2 h

bh
Rh b  2h 2 1  m2 D
b  2h 1  m 2 *
3B 2  8h2
sin  / 2D 3
top width b b  2mh 2mh or Ah
B 2 hD  h 2
Valid depth
* hydraulic for 0    1 where   4h / B P  B / 2 
b 
If Dh   1 h then  1    1/   ln  
2
mhh b
1
1 h  2
2
   D
 sin 2
3
h
 sin  / 2 
 2mh
8 14
CSE20354-HYDRULICS&HYDROLOGY Channel Flows: type of flow
Types of Flow ■ Criterion: Change in flow depth with respect to

time and space
Rapidly varied flow

OCF
(RVF) Time is a criterion
Steady flow Unsteady flow
Gradually varied flow (GVF)
(y/t=0) (y/t0)
Gradually varied flow (UF)

Space is a criterion
Uniform Flow Varied Flow Uniform Flow Varied Flow

(y/x=0) (y/x=0) (y/x0)
(y/x0)
GVF RVF GVF RVF
15
■ Criterion: Change in discharge with respect to

time and space
OCF
Time is a criterion
Steady flow Unsteady flow

(Q/t=0) (Q/t0)
Space is a criterion
Continuous Spatially- Continuous Spatially-Varied

Flow Varied Flow Flow Flow
(Q/x=0) (Q/x0) (Q/x=0) (Q/x0)
16
■ Obstructions cause the flow depth to vary.

■ Rapidly varied flow (RVF) occurs over a short distance near the obstacle.
■ Gradually varied flow (GVF) occurs over larger distances and usually connects UF and RVF.
17
State of Flow
■ Effect of viscosity:
VR
Re  
Note that R in Reynold number is
Hydraulic Radius
Laminar OCF, Re < 500
OCF Transitional OCF, 500 < Re < 1000
Turbulent OCF, Re > 1000
18
Effect of Gravity
■ In open-channel flow the driving force (that is the force causing the motion) is the component of gravity
along the channel bottom. Therefore, it is clear that, the effect of gravity is very important in open-
channel flow.
■ In an open-channel flow Froude number is defined as:
Inertia Force V 2 V
Fr = , and Fr ==
2
or F =
Gravity Force r gD gD
■ In an open-channel flow, there are three types of flow depending on the value of Froude number:
Fr>1 Supercritical Flow

Critical Flow
Fr=1 Subcritical Flow
19
CSE20354-HYDRULICS&HYDROLOGY Channel Flows: velocity distribution
Velocity Distribution
The velocity distribution in an open-channel flow is quite nonuniform because of :
• Nonuniform shear stress along the wetted perimeter,
• Presence of free surface on which the shear stress is zero.
20
CSE20354-HYDRULICS&HYDROLOGY Channel Flows: Chèzy and Manning equations
Uniform Flow in Channels: the Chèzy and Manning equations

Uniform flow can occur in long straight runs of constant slope and constant channel cross section. Steady
uniform flow is the simplest type of open channel flow to analyze, although in practice it is not of such
frequent occurrence as might at first be supposed. The basic formula describing uniform flow is due to the
French engineer Antoine de Chezy (1718–98). He deduced the equation from the results of experiments
conducted on canals and rivers. The formula can be derived analytically.
In steady uniform (or normal) flow there is no change of momentum, and
thus the net force on the liquid is zero. The Figure represents a stretch of
a channel in which these conditions are found. The slope of the channel
is constant, the length of channel between the planes 1 and 2 is l and the
(constant) cross-sectional area is A. Now the control volume of liquid
between sections 1 and 2 is acted on by hydrostatic forces F1 and F2 at
the ends. However, since the cross-sections at 1 and 2 are identical, F1
and F2 are equal in magnitude and have the same line of action; they
thus balance and have no effect on the motion of the liquid. Hydrostatic
forces acting on the sides and bottom of the control volume are
perpendicular to the motion, and so they too have no effect.
21
For zero net force in the direction of motion, the total resistance must exactly balance the
component of the weight W. That is
In almost all cases of practical interest, the Reynolds number of the flow in an open
channel is sufficiently high for conditions to correspond to the turbulent rough flow
regime in which the stress at the boundary is proportional to the square of the mean
velocity and a conductance factor C or friction factor f.
22
Thus, we equate the two relations, and we obtain
That written for V takes the form

𝑉 = 𝜒 √ 𝑔 𝑅 𝑆0
Chèzy Coefficient
Chèzy Equation
𝑉 =𝐶 √ 𝑅 𝑆 0 𝑄=𝑉𝐴= 𝐴𝐶 √ 𝑅 𝑆0
23
Chèzy Coefficient and Manning coefficient (n) and Gauckler-Strickler coefficient (ks)
1/ 6
𝑅 1/6
𝐶= =𝑅 𝑘 𝑠
𝑛
Manning Equation Gauckler-Strickler Equation

2/ 3 1 /2
1 2/ 3 1 /2 𝑉 =𝑘𝑠 𝑅 𝑆 0
𝑉 = 𝑅 𝑆0
𝑛
1 2 /3 1/2
2/ 3 1 / 2
𝑄= 𝐴𝑅 𝑆 0 𝑄=𝑘𝑠 𝐴𝑅 𝑆 0
𝑛
24
Uniform Flow in Channels

V2 V2
1  z2 
z1  y1  2g 2  22g  hl
y
velocity head V 2 hl  Sf x
1 1
energy
2g
V 22
2 grade line
Sf x 2g
hydraulic
y1
grade line
y2
S o x
x Sf=Sw =So
Datum
25
Manning coefficient (n) and Gauckler-Strickler coefficient (ks)
Wall Material n Wall Material n

A. Artificially lined channels
Glass 0.010 B. Excavated earth channels
Brass 0.011 Clean 0.022
Steel, smooth 0.012 Gravelly 0.025
Steel, painted 0.014 Weedy 0.030
Steel, riveted 0.015 Stony, cobbles 0.035
Cast iron 0.013 C. Natural channels
Concrete, finished 0.012 Clean and straight 0.030
Concrete, unfinished 0.014 Sluggish with deep pools 0.040
Wood, planed 0.012 Major rivers 0.035
Wood, unplaned 0.013 Mountain streams 0.050
Clay tile 0.014 D. Floodplains
Brickwork 0.015 Pasture, farmland 0.035
Asphalt 0.016 Light brush 0.050
Corrugated metal 0.022 Heavy brush 0.075
Rubble masonry 0.025 Trees 0.150
26
Normal depth for simple cross-sections: Rectangular cross-section
1 2 /3 1/2
2/ 3 1 / 2
𝑄= 𝐴𝑅 𝑆 0 𝑄=𝑘𝑠 𝐴𝑅 𝑆 0
𝑛
Area Hydraulic radius
Manning/Gauckler-Strickler Equation
5/ 3 −2 /3 1/2
𝑄=𝑘𝑠 𝐴 𝑃 𝑆 0
5 /3 5/ 3 −2 /3 1/ 2
𝑄=𝑘𝑠 𝐵 𝑌 𝑢 ( 𝐵+2 𝑌 𝑢 ) 𝑆 0
27
Normal depth for simple cross-sections: Rectangular cross-section
For infinitely wide rectangular cross-sections (channel width >> channel depth)
Area Hydraulic radius
Manning/Gauckler-StricklerEquation
5/3 1 /2 −1 5 /3 1/ 2
𝑄=𝑘𝑠 𝐵 𝑌 𝑢 𝑆 =𝑛 𝐵𝑌
0 𝑢 𝑆 0
28
CSE20354-HYDRULICS&HYDROLOGY Channel Flows: Conveyance and rating curve
Channel conveyance and rating-curve
The Manning equation for steady-uniform flow indicates a unique relationship

between the discharge and the channel cross section which can be written as
𝑚
𝑄=𝐾 𝐴
K is called the channel conveyance and depends on bottom slope, roughness and wet
perimeter. The exponent m depends only the cross-section shape. For rectangular corss
sections the Manning equation is
5/ 3 −2 /3 1 / 2
𝑄=𝑘 𝐴 𝑠 𝑃 0 𝑆
Thus K and m are
− 2/ 3 1 /2
𝐾 =𝑘𝑠 𝑃 𝑆 0 𝑚=5/3
29
CSE20354-HYDRULICS&HYDROLOGY Channel Flows: Conveyance
Channel conveyance and rating-curve
a rating curve is a graph of discharge versus stage for a given point on a stream
𝑚
𝑄(𝑌 )=𝐾 (𝑌 ) 𝐴(𝑌 )
Use excel file for “playing” with rating curves
30
BEST HYDRAULIC CROSS SECTIONS
The best hydraulic cross section for an open channel is the one with the maximum
hydraulic radius or, equivalently, the one with the minimum wetted perimeter for a
specified cross-sectional area.
The shape with the minimal perimeter per unit area is a circle. Therefore, on the basis of minimum flow
resistance, the best cross section for an open channel is a semicircular one. However, it is usually cheaper
to construct an open channel with straight sides (such as channels with trapezoidal or rectangular cross
sections) instead of semicircular ones, and the general shape of the channel may be specified a priori. Thus
it makes sense to analyze each geometric shape separately for the best cross section.
31
How can we estimate the best cross-section?

1. Assume a geometry
2. Find the minimum wet perimeter with respect to the depth
Rectangular channel
Best hydraulic cross section (rectangular channel):
32
Rectangular channel
33
Trapezoidal channel
Best hydraulic cross section (trapezoidal channel):
34
Trapezoidal channel
Best hydraulic radius (trapezoidal channel):
Best angle (trapezoidal channel):
Best flow depth (trapezoidal channel):
35

Open-Channel Flow: Free Surface

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CSE20354-HYDRULICS&HYDROLOGY Channel Flows : introduction

Classification of Open-Channel Flows

■ Natural flows: rivers, ■ Human-made systems:

Natural channels Artificial channels

Open cross section Covered cross section

Kinds of Open Channel: Artificial channels

■ CANAL is usually a long and ■ FLUME is a channel usually

■ CHUTE is a channel having steep ■ OPEN-FLOW TUNNEL is a comparatively

■ DROP is similar to a chute, but the ■ CULVERT is a covered channel flowing

Total Head at A Cross Section:

Sf :the slope of energy grade line

Sf :the slope of energy grade line

Sw :the slope of the water surface

■ A channel built with constant cross section and constant bottom

■ Otherwise, the channel is NONPRISMATIC.

The channel section (B-B)

The vertical channel section (A-

Geometric Elements of Channel Section

■ THE TOP WIDTH, B,

is the cross-sectional area of the flow

is the length of the line of intersection of the

is the ratio of the water area to the top

rectangular trapezoidal triangular circular parabolic

hydraulic radius b  mhh mh 1  sin   2B 2 h

Types of Flow ■ Criterion: Change in flow depth with respect to

Rapidly varied flow

Gradually varied flow (UF)

Uniform Flow Varied Flow Uniform Flow Varied Flow

GVF RVF GVF RVF

■ Criterion: Change in discharge with respect to

Steady flow Unsteady flow

Continuous Spatially- Continuous Spatially-Varied

■ Obstructions cause the flow depth to vary.

Laminar OCF, Re < 500

OCF Transitional OCF, 500 < Re < 1000

Turbulent OCF, Re > 1000

Fr>1 Supercritical Flow

Uniform Flow in Channels: the Chèzy and Manning equations

Thus, we equate the two relations, and we obtain

That written for V takes the form

Manning Equation Gauckler-Strickler Equation

Uniform Flow in Channels

Manning coefficient (n) and Gauckler-Strickler coefficient (ks)

Wall Material n Wall Material n

Normal depth for simple cross-sections: Rectangular cross-section

Normal depth for simple cross-sections: Rectangular cross-section

Channel conveyance and rating-curve

The Manning equation for steady-uniform flow indicates a unique relationship

Channel conveyance and rating-curve

Use excel file for “playing” with rating curves

BEST HYDRAULIC CROSS SECTIONS

BEST HYDRAULIC CROSS SECTIONS

How can we estimate the best cross-section?

Best hydraulic cross section (rectangular channel):

BEST HYDRAULIC CROSS SECTIONS

BEST HYDRAULIC CROSS SECTIONS

Best hydraulic cross section (trapezoidal channel):

BEST HYDRAULIC CROSS SECTIONS

Best hydraulic radius (trapezoidal channel):