COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND ARCHITECTURE

MOD ULE-1 PART ON E

- LIPSA SUBHADARSHINI

Subject Code- BC 2007

No. of Credits- 4
BCA 3rd Semester

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 U N I T- 1 : I N T R O D U C T I O N T O D I G I TA L E L E C T R O N I C S

• Introduction
• Number Systems
• Complements
• Fixed and Floating Point Presentation
• Character Representation
• Addition
• Subtraction
• Magnitude Comparison
• Logic Gates
• Boolean Algebra
• Combinational Circuits
• Circuit Simplification

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 I N T R O D U C T I O N

• First Digital Computers was developed in the late 1940s

• Digital Computer: a digital system that performs various computational tasks
• Digital: implies that the information in the computer is represented by variables that take limited number of discrete
values
• Binary: Digital Computers function more reliably in two states (0,1) because of the physical restriction of
components and because human logic tends to be binary (i.e. true/false, yes/no statements). So, digital components
that are restricted to take certain discrete values (Sampler and Quantizer Signals) are further constrained to take
only two discrete values and are said to be Binary
• Binary number system has two digits: 0,1
• A Binary digit is called a bit.
• Information in digital computers are represented in group of bits using various coding techniques.
• By judicious use of binary arrangements and by using various coding techniques, the group of bits are used to
develop complete set of instructions for performing various types of computations.

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• A computer system is divided into two functional entities:

• Hardware: consists of all the electronic components and electromechanical devices that comprise the physical entity of the
device
• Software: consists of instructions and data that the computer manipulates to carry out various data processing tasks
• Program: A sequence of instructions for a computer
• Data Base: The data that are manipulated by the program
• Operating System: The programs included in a system’s software package are referred to as the operating system
• Types of program:
• Application Program: written by the user for the purpose of solving a particular problems, e.g. a high level language written
by the user to do a certain data processing requires application program
• System Program: in-built program of the computer which cannot be changed by the user e.g. compiler that translates the high
level language to machine level language, device drivers, operating systems etc

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 I N T R O D U C T I O N

• Why study computer organization and architecture?

• In order to understand how computer executes the program internally
• To write more effective programs
• To understand and improve the performance of the program
• Beneficial for system programmers and embedded system programmers
• Computer Architecture:
• The external view of a computer that is essential to be understood properly by anyone who is likely to program a computer
using machine language or assembly language
• Helps the programmer to be aware of specific instructions supported by the computer, instruction formats, specific registers and
their roles, the techniques for storing and retrieving data to/from the memory, the way to perform input/output operations, etc
• Helps in understanding the behavior and structure of the computer
• Defines Interface between software and hardware of the computer

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 I N T R O D U C T I O N

• Computer Organization:
• Deals with the internal view of the computer and the roles that the internal components play while executing a program
• Deals with how different components like processor, memory and other peripheral devices are connected and the roles that they
play during execution of a program
• Processor organization: deals with how main components of a processor are interconnected and their role
• Memory Organization: deals with how memory components are structured and interconnected
• The system programmers write the programs for a specific architecture and the designers implement an architecture to arrive at a
certain computer organization.
• Computer Design:
• Concerned with the hardware design of the computer
• Once the architecture and the other formulations of the computer has been done, it is the work of the designer to design a hardware
to implement them
• Helps in determining what hardware is to be used and how they are supposed to be connected to carry out a certain task
• Also known as Computer Implementation

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Von Neumann Computers

• John Von Neumann proposed in 1945 that

instructions can be encoded and stored in the memory
just like data
• During the execution of a program it can be fetched
from the memory and can be decoded to set up
necessary data paths and control signals
• The control unit is an electronic circuitry that
decodes each fetched instruction, and generates the
necessary control signals that are transmitted to the
functional units to carry out required operation
• Control signals are responsible to automatically set
up the required data path
• Instruction cycle: In an Instruction cycle, an
instruction is fetched from the memory, analyzed, the
data is fetched, processed and finally the results are
produced. The execution of an instruction is
completed in an instruction cycle.

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 I N T R O D U C T I O N

Basic Organization of a Computer

• Processor
• Main Memory
Processor Monitor
• Monitor
• Keyboard Backplane Bus
• Peripheral Devices
• Backplane Bus
Memory Hard Disk Key Board
• Hard Disk (Secondary Memory)

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 I N T R O D U C T I O N

• Processor
• Responsible for fetching instructions from memory and execute them
• Contains ALU and Control Unit for manipulating data
• Registers for storing data
• Control unit generates control signal to fetch and execute instructions and store the result
• Main Memory
• Called RAM (Random Access Memory)
• CPU can access any location in memory at random and either retrieve binary information stored at that location or store a binary information at that location
• Monitor
• Primary output device
• Display high quality graphics and animation
• Keyboard
• Primary input device
• Peripheral Devices
• Various input devices (scanners and cameras) or output devices (printers and loud speakers) can be attached to the backplane bus
• Backplane bus
• Contains control, data and address lines (wires) to carry control signals/ data/ address of the memory location

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 I N T R O D U C T I O N

For students
Write a short note on the following:
• 1st Generation Computers
• 2nd Generation Computers
• 3rd Generation Computers
• 4th Generation Computers
• 5th Generation Computers

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 N U M B E R S Y S T E M

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• In a digital system, the system can understand only the optional number system. In these systems, digits symbols
are used to represent different values, depending on the index from which it settled in the number system.
• In simple terms, for representing the information, we use the number system in the digital system.
• The digit value in the number system is calculated using:
1. The digit
2. The index, where the digit is present in the number.
3. Finally, the base numbers, the total number of digits available in the number system.
Types of Number System
• In the digital computer, there are various types of number systems used for representing information.
1. Binary Number System
2. Decimal Number System
3. Hexadecimal Number System
4. Octal Number System

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Binary Number System

• Generally, a binary number system is used in the digital computers. In this number system, it carries only two digits,
either 0 or 1. There are two types of electronic pulses present in a binary number system. The first one is the absence
of an electronic pulse representing '0'and second one is the presence of electronic pulse representing '1'. Each digit is
known as a bit. A four-bit collection (1101) is known as a nibble, and a collection of eight bits (11001010) is known
as a byte. The location of a digit in a binary number represents a specific power of the base (2) of the number system.
Characteristics:
1. It holds only two values, i.e., either 0 or 1.
2. It is also known as the base 2 number system.
3. The position of a first digit represents the 0 power of the base(2). Example: 2 0
4. The position of the last digit represents the x power of the base(2). Example: 2 x, where x represents the last position.
Examples:
• (10100)2, (11011)2, (11001)2, (000101)2, (011010)2.

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Decimal Number System

• The decimal numbers are used in our day to day life. The decimal number system contains ten digits from 0 to
9(base 10). Here, the successive place value or position, left to the decimal point holds units, tens, hundreds,
thousands, and so on.
• The position in the decimal number system specifies the power of the base (10). The 0 is the minimum value of the
digit, and 9 is the maximum value of the digit. For example, the decimal number 2541 consist of the digit 1 in the
unit position, 4 in the tens position, 5 in the hundreds position, and 2 in the thousand positions and the value will be
written as:
(2×1000) + (5×100) + (4×10) + (1×1)
=(2×103) + (5×102) + (4×101) + (1×100)
=2000 + 500 + 40 + 1
=2541

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Octal Number System

• The octal number system has base 8(means it has only eight digits from 0 to 7). There are only eight possible digit
values to represent a number. With the help of only three bits, an octal number is represented.  Each set of bits has a
distinct value between 0 and 7.
• Below, we have described certain characteristics of the octal number system:
Characteristics:
1. An octal number system carries eight digits starting from 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7.
2. It is also known as the base 8 number system.
3. The position of the first digit represents the 0 power of the base(8). Example: 8 0
4. The position of the last digit represents the x power of the base(8). Example: 8 x, where x represents the last position
Examples:
• (273)8, (5644)8, (0.5365)8, (1123)8, (1223)8.

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Number Octal Number

0 000

1 001

2 010

3 011

4 100

5 101

6 110

7 111

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Hexadecimal Number System

• It is another technique to represent the number in the digital system called the hexadecimal number system. The number
system has a base of 16 means there are total 16 symbols(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F) used for representing a
number. The single-bit representation of decimal values10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15 are represented by A, B, C, D, E, and F.
Only 4 bits are required for representing a number in a hexadecimal number. Each set of bits has a distinct value between 0
and 15. There are the following characteristics of the octal number system:
• Characteristics:
1. It has ten digits from 0 to 9 and 6 letters from A to F.
2. The letters from A to F defines numbers from 10 to 15.
3. It is also known as the base 16number system.
4. In hexadecimal number, the position of the first digit represents the 0 power of the base(16). Example: 16 0
5. In hexadecimal number, the position of the last digit represents the x power of the base(16). Example: 16 x, where x
represents the last position
Examples:
• (FAC2)16, (564)16, (0ABD5)16, (1123)16, (11F3)16.

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Binary Number Hexadecimal Number

0000 0
0001 1
0010 2
0011 3
0100 4
0101 5
0110 6
0111 7
1000 8
1001 9
1010 A
1011 B
1100 C
1101 D
1110 E
1111 F
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Binary to other Number Systems

• There are three conversions possible for binary number, i.e., binary to decimal, binary to octal, and binary to
hexadecimal. The conversion process of a binary number to decimal differs from the remaining others
Binary to Decimal Conversion
• The process of converting binary to decimal is quite simple. The process starts from multiplying the bits of binary
number with its corresponding positional weights. And lastly, we add all those products.
• Let's take an example to understand how the conversion is done from binary to decimal.
Example: (10110.001)2
• We multiplied each bit of (10110.001)2 with its respective positional weight, and last we add the products of all the
bits with its weight.
(10110.001)2=(1×24)+(0×23)+(1×22)+(1×21)+(0×20)+(0×2-1)+(0×2-2)+(1×2-3)
(10110.001)2=(1×16)+(0×8)+(1×4)+(1×2)+(0×1)+(0×1⁄2)+(0×1⁄4)+(1×1⁄8)
(10110.001)2=16+0+4+2+0+0+0+0.125
(10110.001)2=(22.125 )10

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Binary to Octal Conversion

The base numbers of binary and octal are 2 and 8, respectively. In a binary number, the pair of three bits is equal to one
octal digit. There are only two steps to convert a binary number into an octal number which are as follows:
1. In the first step, we have to make the pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point. If there will be one or two bits
left in a pair of three bits pair, we add the required number of zeros on extreme sides.
2. In the second step, we write the octal digits corresponding to each pair.
Example: (111110101011.0011)2
1. Firstly, we make pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point.
111       110       101       011.001       1
On the right side of the binary point, the last pair has only one bit. To make it a complete pair of three bits, we added two
zeros on the extreme side.
111       110       101       011.001       100
2. Then, we wrote the octal digits, which correspond to each pair.
(111110101011.0011)2=(7653.14)8
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Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion

The base numbers of binary and hexadecimal are 2 and 16, respectively. In a binary number, the pair of four bits is equal to one
hexadecimal digit. There are also only two steps to convert a binary number into a hexadecimal number which are as follows:
1. In the first step, we have to make the pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point. If there will be one, two, or three
bits left in a pair of four bits pair, we add the required number of zeros on extreme sides.
2. In the second step, we write the hexadecimal digits corresponding to each pair.
Example 1: (10110101011.0011)2
1. Firstly, we make pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point.
111 1010 1011.0011
On the left side of the binary point, the first pair has three bits. To make it a complete pair of four bits, add one zero on the
extreme side.
0111 1010 1011.0011
2. Then, we write the hexadecimal digits, which correspond to each pair.
(011110101011.0011)2=(7AB.3)16

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Decimal to other Number System

• The decimal number can be an integer or floating-point integer. When the decimal number is a floating-point integer, then we
convert both part (integer and fractional) of the decimal number in the isolated form(individually). There are the following steps
that are used to convert the decimal number into a similar number of any base 'r'.
1. In the first step, we perform the division operation on integer and successive part with base 'r'. We will list down all the
remainders till the quotient is zero. Then we find out the remainders in reverse order for getting the integer part of the equivalent
number of base 'r'. In this, the least and most significant digits are denoted by the first and the last remainders.
2. In the next step, the multiplication operation is done with base 'r' of the fractional and successive fraction. The carries are noted
until the result is zero or when the required number of the equivalent digit is obtained. For getting the fractional part of the
equivalent number of base 'r', the normal sequence of carrying is considered.
Decimal to Binary Conversion
• For converting decimal to binary, there are two steps required to perform, which are as follows:
1. In the first step, we perform the division operation on the integer and the successive quotient with the base of binary(2).
2. Next, we perform the multiplication on the integer and the successive quotient with the base of binary(2).
Example 1: (152.25)10
Step 1: Divide the number 152 and its successive quotients with base 2.

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Operation Quotient Remainder

152/2 76 0 (LSB)
76/2 38 0
38/2 19 0
19/2 9 1
9/2 4 1
4/2 2 0
2/2 1 0
1/2 0 1(MSB)

(152)10=(10011000)2
Step 2: Now, perform the multiplication of 0.27 and successive
fraction with base 2.
Operation Result carry
0.25×2 0.50 0
0.50×2 0 1
(0.25)10=(.01)2
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Decimal to Octal Conversion

• For converting decimal to octal, there are two steps required to perform, which are as follows:
1. In the first step, we perform the division operation on the integer and the successive quotient with the base of
octal(8).
2. Next, we perform the multiplication on the integer and the successive quotient with the base of octal(8).
Example 1: (152.25)10
Step 1: Divide the number 152 and its successive quotients with base 8.
Operation Quotient Remainder
152/8 19 0
19/8 2 3
2/8 0 2

(152)10=(230)8

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 N U M B E R S Y S T E M

Step 2: Now perform the multiplication of 0.25 and successive fraction with base 8.
Operation Result carry
0.25×8 0 2

(0.25)10=(2)8
So, the octal number of the decimal number 152.25 is 230.2

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 L O G I C G AT E S

• Binary Information is represented in digital computers by physical quantities called signals.

• The two recognizable voltage states in a computer is 0 and 1.
• Varies Computer to computer e.g. a particular digital computer may employ a signal of 3 volts to represent binary 1
and 0.5 to represent 0.
• The input terminals of digital circuits accept 3 and 0.5 volts
• Output terminals also generate output as 3 or 0.5 volts only
• Only two states exist throughout the computer
• Binary logics deal with binary variables and with operations that assume a logical meaning.
• It is used to describe, in algebraic form or tabular form, the manipulation and processing of binary information.
• The manipulation of Binary information is done by logic circuits called gates.
• Logic gates are the basic building blocks of any digital circuit
• The input-output relationship of binary variable for each gate can be represented in Tabular form by a truth table.

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 L O G I C G AT E S

• Basic Gates: Buffer/ YES, AND, OR, NOT

• Universal Gates: NAND and NOR
• Special Gates: XOR, XNOR
• Flip- Flops, Registers, Counters, Encoder, Decoder, Multiplexer
etc can be designed using logic gates.
• Any digital circuit can be designed using universal gates only.
• Example of Digital Circuit Using Gates

Half Adder using Logic Half Adder using Universal Gates

Gates

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 B O O L E A N A L G E B R A

• Boolean Algebra is an algebra that deals with binary variables and logic operations.
• Boolean Algebra is used primarily by design engineers. Using this system, they are able to arrange logic gates to accomplish
desired tasks.
• Boolean algebra also enables the engineers to achieve the desired output by using the fewest number of logic gates. Since
space, weight, and cost are important factors in the design of equipment, you would usually want to use as few parts as
possible.
• Basic Identities of Boolean Algebra can be used to reduce the expression to a simpler one with less no. of gates.
• AND, OR, NOT (Complement) are the three basic Logical Operations
• A Boolean function can be expressed algebraically with Binary variables, logic operation symbols, parentheses and equal sign
• For a given value of variables, the Boolean function can either be 1 or 0.
• Boolean function can be specified by truth table/ Logical Expression/Logic gates

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 B O O L E A N A L G E B R A

Examples of Boolean Algebra

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 B O O L E A N A L G E B R A

Basic Identities of Boolean Algebra

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 B O O L E A N A L G E B R A

De Morgan’s Theorem
According to De Morgan's theorem, a NAND gate is equivalent to an OR gate with inverted inputs. Similarly, a NOR gate is
equivalent to an AND gate with inverted inputs. The figure shows these De Morgan equivalent gates for NAND and NOR gates.
The two symbols shown for each function are called duals. They are logically equivalent and can be used interchangeably.

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 B O O L E A N A L G E B R A

Proof of De Morgan’s Theorem

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 B O O L E A N A L G E B R A

Reduction of Boolean Algebra using Identities

1. Using Boolean identities, reduce the given Boolean expression: F(X, Y, Z) = X′Y + YZ′ + YZ + XY′Z′
2. Reduce the following Boolean expression: F(P ,Q, R)=(P+Q)(P+R)
3. What is the equivalent expression for the Boolean expression x’y’z +yz+ xz?
4. Write the reduced form for the Boolean expression (AB’(C+BD) + A’B’)C.
5. Check whether AC + ABC = AC is true or false?
6. Write the reduced form for the Boolean expression (AB’(C+BD) + A’B’)C.
7. Using De Morgan’s Theorem, show that:
1. (A+B)’(A’+B’)’= 0
2. A+A’B+A’B’= 1
8. Determine the simplified form of the Boolean expression xy + x’z + yz.
9. Find the complement of the Boolean expression: XY(Y’Z + XZ).
10. Find the reduced form of the Boolean expression: a’bc’ + a’bc + abc’ + abc.

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 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

Reduction of Boolean Algebra using Identities

Using Boolean identities, reduce the given Boolean Using Z’ + Z = 1 and absorption law (Y + XY’)= (Y + X),
expression:
⇒ F(X, Y, Z) = X′Y+Y.1+Z′(Y+X)
F(X, Y, Z) = X′Y + YZ′ + YZ + XY′Z′
⇒ F(X, Y, Z) = X′Y+Y+Z′(Y+X) [Since Y.1 = Y ]
Solution:
⇒ F(X, Y, Z) = Y(X′+1)+Z′(Y+X)
Given,F(X, Y, Z) = X′Y + YZ′ + YZ + XY′Z′
⇒ F(X, Y, Z) = Y.1+Z′(Y+X) [ As (X’ + 1) = 1 ]
Using the idempotent law, we can write YZ’ = YZ’ + ⇒ F(X, Y, Z) = Y +Z′(Y+X) [ As, Y.1 = Y ]
YZ’
⇒ F(X, Y, Z) = Y+YZ’+XZ’
⇒ F(X, Y, Z) = X′Y+(YZ′+YZ′)+YZ + XY′Z′
⇒ F(X, Y, Z) = Y(1+Z′)+XZ′
Now, interchange the third and fourth term, we get
⇒ F(X, Y, Z) = Y.1+XZ′ [Since (1 + Z’) = 1]
⇒ F(X, Y, Z) = X′Y+(YZ′+YZ)+(YZ′+XY′Z′)
⇒ F(X, Y, Z) = Y+XZ′ [Since Y.1 = Y]
By using distributive law,
Hence, the simplified form of the given Boolean expression
⇒ F(X, Y, Z) = X′Y+Y(Z′+Z)+Z′(Y+XY′) is F(X, Y, Z) = Y+XZ′.

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 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

Reduction of Boolean Algebra using Identities

Reduce the following Boolean expression: Using dominance law, we can write
F(P ,Q, R)=(P+Q)(P+R) ⇒ F(P, Q, R) = P + Q.P + Q.R
Solution: Again using distributive law, we get
Given, F(P ,Q, R)=(P+Q)(P+R) ⇒ F(P, Q, R) = (P+1).P+ Q.R
Using distributive law, Therefore, using dominance law, we can get the reduced
⇒ F(P, Q, R) = P.P + P.R +Q.P + Q.R form as follows:

Using Idempotent law, ⇒ F(P, Q, R) = 1.P+Q.R

⇒ F(P, Q, R) = P + P.R +Q.P + Q.R ⇒ F(P, Q, R) = P+Q.R

Again using distributive law, we get Hence, the reduced form of F(P, Q, R) = (P+Q)(P+R) is
F(P, Q, R) = P+Q.R.
⇒ F(P, Q, R) = P(1+R) + Q.P + Q.R
Also, check: Distributive Property

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 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

Reduction of Boolean Algebra using Identities

What is the equivalent expression for the Boolean
expression x’y’z +yz+ xz?
Solution:
Further x+x’ = 1
Answer: z
So, x’y’z +yz+ xz = z(1+y)
Given Boolean expression: x’y’z +yz+ xz
Now, using null law, 1+y = 1
x’y’z +yz+ xz = z(x’y’+y+x)
x’y’z +yz+ xz = z.1
Now, apply distributive law for the first two terms
inside the bracket. Now, using identity law, A.1 = A

x’y’z +yz+ xz = z[(x’+y) (y+y’)+ x] Therefore, x’y’z +yz+ xz = z.

x’y’z +yz+ xz = z [(x’ + y) . 1 + x] [Since A+A’ = 1] Hence, the Boolean expression equivalent to x’y’z +yz+
xz is z
x’y’z +yz+ xz = z [x’ + y + x]

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 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

Reduction of Boolean Algebra using Identities

Write the reduced form for the Boolean expression (AB’(C+BD) + A’B’)C.
Solution:
Given expression: (AB’(C+BD) + A’B’)C
Using distributive law, we can write;
(AB’(C+BD) + A’B’)C = (AB’C + AB’BD +A’B’) C
Since, BB’ = 0
(AB’(C+BD) + A’B’)C = (AB’C + 0 + A’B’)C
(AB’(C+BD) + A’B’)C = (AB’C + A’B’)C
(AB’(C+BD) + A’B’)C = AB’C + A’B’C
Now, take B’C as common,
(AB’(C+BD) + A’B’)C = B’C (A + A’)
(AB’(C+BD) + A’B’)C = B’C (1)
(AB’(C+BD) + A’B’)C = B’C.
Hence, the reduced form of (AB’(C+BD) + A’B’)C is B’C.

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 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

Reduction of Boolean Algebra using Identities

Check whether AC + ABC = AC is true or false?
Solution:
Given Boolean expression: AC + ABC = AC
AC (1+B) = AC
Now, using the null law 1+B = 1, the above expression can be written as:
AC.1 = AC
Thus, using the identity law, 1.A = A, the above expression becomes:
AC = AC
Hence, AC + ABC = AC is true.

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 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

Reduction of Boolean Algebra using Identities

Reduce the Boolean expression:
A = XY + X(Y+Z) + Y(Y+Z) Using null law, (i.e., 1+A = 1), we can write
Solution: A = XY + XZ + Y.1
Given: A = XY + X(Y+Z) + Y(Y+Z) Using Identity law, 1.Y = Y.
The given Boolean expression can be written as follows: So, A = XY + XZ + Y
A = XY + XY + XZ + YY + YZ Now, the above form can be written as:
Using Idempotent law, Y.Y = Y
A = Y(1+X) + XZ
Thus, A = XY + XY + XZ + Y + YZ
A = Y.1 + XZ
Again, XY + XY = XY, we get
A = Y + XZ
A = XY + XZ + Y + YZ
Hence, the reduced form of the Boolean expression
A = XY + XZ + Y(1+Z)
A = XY + X(Y+Z) + Y(Y+Z) is A = Y+XZ.

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 B O O L E A N A L G E B R A

Reduction of Boolean Algebra using Karnaugh Map (K-Map)

• The map provides a simple and straight forward procedure for simplifying Boolean expressions
• It is a pictorial arrangement of truth table which allows an easy interpretation for choosing the minimum number of
terms needed to express the function algebraically
• Minterm: The combination of the variables in a truth table is called minterm. A function of n variables will have 2 n
minterms equivalent to 2n binary numbers obtained from n bits
• An information contained in the truth table may be expressed in compact form by listing the decimal equivalent of
those minterms that produce a 1 (one) for the function
• Maxterm: is a Boolean expression resulting in a 0 for the output of a single cell expression, and 1s for all other cells in
the Karnaugh map, or truth table.
• The procedure for placing a minterm in a K-map:
• Identify the minterm (product term) term to be mapped.
• Write the corresponding binary numeric value.
• Use binary value as an address to place a 1 in the K-map
• Repeat steps for other minterms (P-terms within a Sum-Of-Products).

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 B O O L E A N A L G E B R A

Reduction of Boolean Algebra using Karnaugh Map (K-Map)

• The procedure for writing the Sum-Of-Products reduced Boolean equation from a K-map:
• Form largest groups of 1s possible covering all minterms. Groups must be a power of 2.
• Write binary numeric value for groups.
• Convert binary value to a product term.
• Repeat steps for other groups. Each group yields a p-terms within a Sum-Of-Products.
• The procedure for placing a maxterm in the K-map is:
• Identify the Sum term to be mapped.
• Write corresponding binary numeric value.
• Form the complement
• Use the complement as an address to place a 0 in the K-map
• Repeat for other maxterms (Sum terms within Product-Of-Sum expression).

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 B O O L E A N A L G E B R A

Reduction of Boolean Algebra using Karnaugh Map (K-Map)

• The procedure for writing the Product-Of-Sums Boolean reduction for a K-map:
• Form largest groups of 0s possible, covering all maxterms. Groups must be a power of 2.
• Write binary numeric value for group.
• Complement binary numeric value for group.
• Convert complement value to a sum-term.
• Repeat steps for other groups. Each group yields a sum-term within a Product-Of-Sums result.

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 B O O L E A N A L G E B R A

Reduction of Boolean Algebra using Karnaugh Map (K-Map)

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 B O O L E A N A L G E B R A

Reduction of Boolean Algebra using Karnaugh Map (K-Map)

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 B O O L E A N A L G E B R A

Reduction of Boolean Algebra using Karnaugh Map (K-Map)

Obtain the truth table of the following functions, and express each function in sum‐of‐
minterms and product‐of‐maxterms form:
(a)(b + cd)(c + bd)
(b)(cd + b'c + bd')(b + d)
(c)(c' + d)(b + c’)
(d)bd' + acd' + ab'c + a'c'

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 B O O L E A N A L G E B R A

Reduction of Boolean Algebra using Karnaugh Map (K-Map)

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 B O O L E A N A L G E B R A

Reduction of Boolean Algebra using Karnaugh Map (K-Map)

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 B O O L E A N A L G E B R A

Reduction of Boolean Algebra using Karnaugh Map (K-Map)

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 B O O L E A N A L G E B R A

Reduction of Boolean Algebra using Karnaugh Map (K-Map)

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 B O O L E A N A L G E B R A

Reduction of Boolean Algebra using Karnaugh Map (K-Map)

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 B O O L E A N A L G E B R A

Reduction of Boolean Algebra using Karnaugh Map (K-Map)

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 B O O L E A N A L G E B R A

Reduction of Boolean Algebra using Karnaugh Map (K-Map)

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 B O O L E A N A L G E B R A

Reduction of Boolean Algebra using Karnaugh Map (K-Map)

• There are occasions when it does not matter if the function produces 0 or 1 for a given Minterm/ Maxterm.
Since the function may be 0 or 1, we say that we don,t care what the function output is for this minterm/
maxterm.
• One of the very significant and useful concepts in simplifying the output expression using K-Map is the
concept of “Don’t Care”. The “Don’t Care” conditions allow us to replace the empty cell of a K-Map to form
a grouping of the variables which is larger than that of forming groups without don’t care. While forming
groups of cells, we can consider a “Don’t Care” cell as 1 or 0 or we can also ignore that cell. Therefore, the
“Don’t Care” condition can help us to form a larger group of cells. 
• A Don’t Care cell can be represented by a cross(X) or minus(-) or phi(Φ) in K-Maps representing an invalid
combination. For example, in the Excess-3 code system, the states 0000, 0001, 0010, 1101, 1110, and 1111
are invalid or unspecified. These states are called don’t cares.
• A standard SOP function having don’t cares can be converted into a POS expression by keeping don’t cares as
they are, and writing the missing minterms of the SOP form as the maxterm of POS form. Similarly, a POS
function having don’t cares can be converted to SOP form keeping the don’t cares as they are and writing the
missing maxterms of the POS expression as the minterms of SOP expression. 

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 B O O L E A N A L G E B R A

Reduction of Boolean Algebra using Karnaugh Map (K-Map)

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 B O O L E A N A L G E B R A

Reduction of Boolean Algebra using Karnaugh Map (K-Map)

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 B O O L E A N A L G E B R A

Reduction of Boolean Algebra using Karnaugh Map (K-Map)

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 C O M B I N AT I O N A L C I R C U I T S

HALF ADDER CIRCUIT

A half adder consists of two inputs and produces two outputs. It is considered to be the simplest digital circuits. The inputs to this circuit
are the bits on which the addition is to be performed. The outputs obtained are the sum and carry.

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 C O M B I N AT I O N A L C I R C U I T S

FULL ADDER CIRCUIT

Full Adder is the adder that adds three inputs and produces two outputs. The first two inputs are A and B and the third input is an input carry as
C-IN. The output carry is designated as C-OUT and the normal output is designated as S which is SUM. A full adder logic is designed in such
a manner that can take eight inputs together to create a byte-wide adder and cascade the carry bit from one adder to another. we use a full adder
because when a carry-in bit is available, another 1-bit adder must be used since a 1-bit half-adder does not take a carry-in bit. A 1-bit full adder
adds three operands and generates 2-bit results.

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 C O M B I N AT I O N A L C I R C U I T S

FULL ADDER CIRCUIT

For students- Design a half adder and a full adder using NAND and NOR gates

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 C O M B I N AT I O N A L C I R C U I T S

MAGNITUDE COMPARATOR
A magnitude digital Comparator is a combinational circuit that compares two digital or binary numbers in order to find out whether one
binary number is equal, less than, or greater than the other binary number. We logically design a circuit for which we will have two inputs
one for A and the other for B and have three output terminals, one for A > B condition, one for A = B condition, and one for A < B
condition.

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 C O M B I N AT I O N A L C I R C U I T S

MAGNITUDE COMPARATOR

For students- Find the equations using K-Map for A<B, A=B and A>B

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 C O M B I N AT I O N A L C I R C U I T S

DECODERS
• In Digital Electronics, discrete quantities of information are represented by binary codes. A binary code of n bits is capable of representing up
to 2^n distinct elements of coded information. The name “Decoder” means to translate or decode coded information from one format into
another, so a digital decoder transforms a set of digital input signals into an equivalent decimal code at its output. A decoder is a combinational
circuit that converts binary information from n input lines to a maximum of 2^n unique output lines.
• Applications of Decoder:
• It is used in code conversion. i.e analog to digital conversion in the analog decoder.
• It may also be used for data distribution.
• In a high-performance memory system, this decode can be used to minimize the effect of system decoding.
• The decoder is used as address decoders in CPU memory location identification.
• It is also be used in electronic circuits to convert instruction into CPU control signals.
• They are mainly used in logical circuits, data transfer.
• They can also be used to create simple other digital logics like half adders and full adders and some other digital design also.
• Microprocessor selecting different I/O devices.
• It decoding to binary input to activate the LED segments so that the decimal number can be displayed.
• Microprocessor memory system selecting different banks of memory.

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 C O M B I N AT I O N A L C I R C U I T S

DECODERS

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MULTIPLEXERS
• It is a combinational circuit which have many data inputs and single output depending on control or select inputs.​For N
input lines, log n (base2) selection lines, or we can say that for 2n input lines, n selection lines are required. Multiplexers
are also known as “Data n selector, parallel to serial convertor, many to one circuit, universal logic circuit​”. Multiplexers
are mainly used to increase amount of the data that can be sent over the network within certain amount of time and
bandwidth.
• Multiplexer are used in various fields where multiple data need to be transmitted using a single line. Following are some of
the applications of multiplexers –
• Communication System – Communication system is a set of system that enable communication like transmission system, relay and
tributary station, and communication network. The efficiency of communication system can be increased considerably using multiplexer.
Multiplexer allow the process of transmitting different type of data such as audio, video at the same time using a single transmission line.
• Telephone Network – In telephone network, multiple audio signals are integrated on a single line for transmission with the help of
multiplexers. In this way, multiple audio signals can be isolated and eventually, the desire audio signals reach the intended recipients.
• Computer Memory – Multiplexers are used to implement huge amount of memory into the computer, at the same time reduces the
number of copper lines required to connect the memory to other parts of the computer circuit.
• Transmission from the Computer System of a Satellite – Multiplexer can be used for the transmission of data signals from the computer
system of a satellite or spacecraft to the ground system using the GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites.

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MULTIPLEXERS

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