RESEARCH OVERVIEW

Prof Patrick Chanda

Texila American University
Zambia
What is Research?
• Research is the systematic collection, analysis and
interpretation of data to answer a certain question or
solve a problem
• The Research Process is a series of actions or steps that
are performed in order to carry out research
• It is important to follow these steps when conducting
research
Steps in Research
Selection of Research Topic
Selecting a research topic may depend on:
– Researcher’s
• Specialty
• Interest
• Scientific background
• Experience
– Actual need for research in this area
– Available resources (interest of funding body)
Selection of Research Topic
Following factors to be considered:
Relevance
Whether the problem is already researched before
Feasibility
Cost-effectiveness
Required data must be available
Contribution to knowledge in specific field
Practical application of the topic selected
Defining the Research Problem
The research problem tells you, your research supervisor
and readers what you intend to research.
Problem may be of the following nature:
 Exploratory
 Descriptive
 Causal
E.g. “How has the development of technology impacted
our language use?”
 Research Objectives
Explain what the researcher aims to achieve through
research
Objectives should be:
1. S Specific
2. M Measurable
3. A Achievable
4. R Relevant
5. T Time-bound
 Research Objectives
Objectives should be listed under two headings:
a) Main objective (aim);
b) Specific objectives.
The MAIN OBJECTIVE is an overall statement of the
thrust of your study.
The SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES are the specific aspects of the
topic that you want to investigate within the main
framework of your study.
Each objective should contain only one aspect of the
Study
OBJECTIVES EXAMPLES
Main Objective
 To determine the Preparedness of Pregnant women who
are due for delivery when referral is the option.
Specific Objectives
1. To assess the knowledge level of pregnant women on
obstetric danger signs necessitating referral.
2. To determine the readiness of pregnant women to
accept referral once referred.
3. To determine factors influencing pregnant women
accepting referral.
Research Questions
A research question is a question that a study or
research project aims to answer.
The question should be clear and specific
It should reflect the objectives of the study
It has no answer by common sense
It has no answer in the LITERATURE

Finding an answer to the question will solve or at least

help in solving the problem to be studied.
What is a “Literature Review”?
“…a literature review surveys scientific articles, books,
medical journals, dissertations and other sources […]
relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory,
providing a description, summary, and critical evaluation
of each work.”
Sources of Literature - Books, Journals Reports,
Conference proceedings, Theses and dissertations,
Government/corporate reports, Internet.
Literature Review as a Process
Rationale/Justification of Study
An explanation of the fundamental reasons for your
research
Justification for your work
Developing a Hypothesis
A hypothesis is tentative assumption which a researcher
wants to test, and can either be accepted or rejected
after the process of study
Must be stated in precise and clearly defined terms
May be more than one
 e.g. H0 (Null Hypothesis) - there is no relationship
between hours of sleep and performance in a test
Ha (Alternative Hypothesis) - there is a relationship
between hours of sleep and performance in a test
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
 A theoretical framework is a foundational review of
existing theories that serves as a roadmap for
developing the arguments you will use in your own work.
 Theories are developed by researchers to explain
phenomena, draw connections, and make predictions
Conceptual Framework
 A conceptual framework is a representation of the
relationship you expect to see between your variables,
or the characteristics or properties that you want to
study.
 Conceptual frameworks can be written or visual and are
generally developed based on a literature review of
existing studies about your topic.
Research Design
Research design is a set of advance decisions that make up
the master plan specifying the methods and procedures
for collecting and analyzing and interpreting observations
Sampling Technique
All items in any field of inquiry constitute a 'Universe' or
population'
Complete enumeration of all items in the population is
not possible when population is very high and involves
great deal of time, money and energy
Selection of few respondents who constitute a 'sample'
Selection process is the 'sampling technique'
Methods of sampling — probability and non probability
sampling
Sampling Techniques

 Probability Sampling - involves random selection,

allowing you to make strong statistical inferences about
the whole group.
 Non Probability Sampling - involves non-random
selection based on convenience or other criteria,
allowing you to easily collect data.
Sampling Techniques

 The population is the entire group that you want to

draw conclusions about.
 The sample is the specific group of individuals that you
will collect data from.
Sample size
The number of individuals you should include in your
sample depends on various factors, including the size and
variability of the population and your research design.
Sampling Techniques

Probability Sampling
 Simple random sampling.
 Systematic sampling.
 Stratified sampling.
 Cluster sampling.
Sampling Techniques
1. Simple random sampling - In a simple random sample,
every member of the population has an equal chance of
being selected.
2. Systematic sampling - Every member of the population is
listed with a number, but instead of randomly generating
numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.
3. Stratified sampling - divide the population into
subgroups (strata) based on the relevant characteristic
(e.g., gender identity, age range, income bracket, job
role). Then you use random or systematic sampling to
select a sample from each subgroup.
Sampling Techniques
4. Cluster sampling - involves dividing the population into
subgroups, but each subgroup should have similar
characteristics to the whole sample. Then, you randomly
select entire subgroups.
Sampling Techniques

Non Probability Sampling

 Convenience sampling.
 Voluntary response sampling.
 Purposive sampling.
 Snowball sampling.
Sampling Techniques
1. Convenience sampling - simply includes the individuals
who happen to be most accessible to the researcher. It
representative of the population.
2. Voluntary response sampling - Instead of the
researcher choosing participants and directly contacting
them, people volunteer themselves.
3. Purposive sampling - involves the researcher using
their expertise to select a sample that is most useful to
the purposes of the research.
4. Snowball sampling.
Sampling Techniques

4. Snowball sampling - If the population is hard to access,

snowball sampling can be used to recruit participants
via other participants. The number of people you have
access to “snowballs” as you get in contact with more
people. The downside here is also representativeness,
as you have no way of knowing how representative your
sample is due to the reliance on participants recruiting
others.
Sampling Techniques
Data Collection
Primary data
• Originally collected
• By observation
• Personal interviews
• Telephone interviews
• Through Internet
• Questionnaires Schedules
Secondary data
• Already available and compiled
Data Analysis
Critical examination of assembled and grouped data
Task requiring maximum skill
Selection of tools of analysis
Irrelevant analysis should be avoided
Computer aided research analysis of great help
Hypothesis Testing
After analysis researcher tests for acceptance or
rejection of hypothesis
Various tests are available
 Chi square,
 t-test,
 F-test
Conclusion and Recommendations
Hypothesis is tested and upheld several times
Leads to generalization
Real value of research is to arrive at generalizations
If research started with no hypothesis, findings may be
related to some existing theory-Interpretation
Preparation of Report
Title
Acknowledgements/Dedication
Abstract
Table of Contents
List of tables and graphs/charts/Abreviations
Main report
References
Appendices
Thank You