AC420 RESEARCH METHODS

MR. B. MUTEMBWA
Research Methodology
This sections answers the ‘how’ part of your research.
How is the research going to be operationalised?
Methodological philosophies: Quantitative, Qualitative
and Mixed Methodology [Quant-Qual].
The choice is guided by i) Your methodological strength
and ii) The nature of the study.
…Research Methodology
A combination of the two methodologies was
adopted to avoid the dangers of ‘methodolatry’
Methodolatry-This is a traditional temptation of
being inflexible. Some researchers prefer to use one
research methodology and take other
methodologies as inferior or undoable (Robson,
2000).
...Research Methodology
Research Design-refers to the procedures that will
be followed for collecting and analyzing data.
Research methods:
Data collection methods and instruments.
 Data collection activities e.g. pilot study,
secondary data collection, panel data collection..
…Research Methodology
Population and sampling-what are the
sampling methods to be used? Probability and
non-probability sampling methods.
Data analysis-what methods will be followed.
Informed by the data collection methods.
Data validation.
Formulating Research Design
Research design is the general plan of how you will go
about answering your research question(s)
The “How” part of research.
The justification is always based on your research
question(s) and objectives and will be consistent with
your research philosophy.
Hakim (2000) compares a research designing a research
project with an architect designing a building. Ref: Page
137 of Saunders et al(2009)-Hakim’s(2000) article.
Purpose of Research
Purpose is classified into exploratory, descriptive and explanatory.
Exploratory study- a valuable means of finding out ‘what is happening; to
seek new insights; to ask questions and to assess phenomena in a new light’
Useful clarifying an understanding of a problem especially when unsure of
the precise nature of the problem. It is flexible & adaptable to change.
Three principal ways of conducting
exploratory research:
1. a search of the literature;
2. interviewing ‘experts’ in the subject;
3. conducting focus group interviews.
Descriptive study- involves giving a
description of research objects.
Gives an accurate profile of persons and
events.
Explanatory Research-studying a situation or a
problem in order to explain the relationships
between variables
Delimitation
Provide the limits/boundaries of the
study.
This is geographical, theoretical and
conceptual.
Opportunity to outline the strengths and
weaknesses.
Research strategy
The techniques used to gather data
1. Experiment-studying causal links; whether a
change in one independent variable produces a
change in another dependent variable
 Answer answer ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions in
explaratory and explanatory studies. Common
with natural sciences.
 Works with experimental group,& control
group.
A Classic Experiment Strategy
…Research strategy
Survey-It is a popular and common strategy in business
and management research;
frequently used to answer who, what, where, how much
and how many questions.
It therefore tends to be used for exploratory and
descriptive research.
It is informed by the deductive approach.
The tendency is to use it for for exploratory and
descriptive research.
 Advantages of Survey
Allows the collection of a large amount of data
May be highly economical
Use of questionnaires to a sample leads to collection
of standardised data which allows easy comparison.
The strategy is comparatively easy to explain and to
understand.
Also allows for the collection of quantitative data-
 this can be analysed quantitatively using
descriptive and inferential statistics.
…Advantages of Survey
The researcher has more control over the
research process
Using a sample it becomes possible to
generate representative findings at a lower
cost
Disadvantages of Survey
Responses are limited to the number of questions
that any questionnaire can contain
Some respondents may not be willing to be open
Cross-sectional data collection may be affected by
interviewee and interviewer biases.
The findings may not be replicated in some
settings.
 Case study
The strategy involves an empirical investigation of a
particular contemporary phenomenon.
Investigates a real life context using multiple sources
of evidence.
Used to answer the why?’ ,‘what?’ and ‘how?’
questions.
Mostly used in explanatory and exploratory research.
NB: Check for advantages and
disadvantages.
 Action research
A process of identifying the context and purpose
of research followed by diagnosing, planning, take
action and then evaluating.
Action research as opposed to traditional research
is concerned with improvement (opposed to
explanation), development (as opposed to
knowledge), perspectives ( as opposed to
experimentation) and local ( as opposed to
universal) (Schumuck, 2009:1).
…Action research
Researchers approach research in a reflective
way
Action research is a form of self-reflective
enquiry undertaken by the participants
4 Common Themes of Action Research
1. It is research in action rather than research about action
2. It involves all practitioners in the research[Inclusive]
3. Iterative in nature [ the process of diagnosing, planning,
taking action and evaluating](see Action Research Spiral)
4. Results from action research could inform other
contexts(replication).
The Action Research Spiral
Grounded theory
A theory building strategy involving both
induction and deduction.
Data are collected without the formation of
an initial theoretical framework.
Theory is developed from data collected and
analysed.
Negotiating access and research ethics
This sis about the ability of the researcher to access data
sources.
Access may be difficult because of: Lack of trust, sensitive data,
lack of perceived value
Levels of Access
1. Physical access or entry- where you need to enter an
organisation for collection of data.
 The internet [Virtual access] has made secondary data
more accessible [Some internet sources are restricted]
However, primary data is still a challenge.
Negotiating access and research ethics
2. Cognitive access.
Where you need to gain acceptance and
consent from intended participants
The researcher gains access to the
precise data needed
Physical access alone is inadequate.
Strategies to gain access
 ensuring you are familiar with and understand
the organisation or group before making contact;
allowing yourself sufficient time;
 using existing and developing new contacts-
networking [friends, relatives];
 providing a clear account of purpose and type of
access required [clear introductory letter];
 overcoming organisational concerns[Time,
sensitivity of topic, & confidetiality];
…Strategies to gain access
highlighting possible benefits to the organisation;
using suitable language;
facilitating replies;
developing access incrementally [request to conduct interviews, access
to undertake observation & permission to tape-record the interactions] ;
establishing credibility [gaining cooperation by ensuring
confidentiality and anonymity];
being open to serendipitous [occurrence or development of chance
in a happy or beneficial way] events.
Ethical Considerations
Firstly, ethics are about honesty in one’s work.
 Walliman (2005) contends that honesty is an essential element of research that
engenders a level of trust and credibility o promote knowledge generation.
Further, Walliman laments that the worst offence against honesty is
plagiarism[academic sin], which involves direct copying of other people’s
ideas without acknowledging.
 He further asserts that even if one paraphrases without acknowledgement, it
is considered unethical.
 Ethics of a research concern the appropriateness of the researcher’s behavior
in relation to the participants of the research or those who are affected by it
(Gray, 2004:58).
Nuremberg
During the Nuremberg
War Crimes Trials, 23
German doctors were
charged with crimes
against humanity for
“performing medical
experiments upon concentration camp inmates and other
living human subjects, without their consent, in the
course of which experiments the defendants committed
the murders, brutalities, cruelties, tortures, atrocities, and
other inhuman acts.”
The Nuremberg Code (1947)
As part of the verdict, the Court enumerated some rules for
"Permissible Medical Experiments", now known as the
“Nuremberg Code”. These rules include:

voluntary consent
benefits outweigh risks
ability of the subject to terminate participation
10 Principles of the Nuremberg Code - 1947
1. The voluntary consent of the human
subject is absolutely essential

2. The experiment should yield fruitful

results for the good of society,
unprocurable by other methods
Nuremberg Code – 1947 – cont’d
3. The experiment should be designed and based
on the results of animal experimentation and a
knowledge of the natural history of the
disease

4. Experiment conducted to avoid all

unnecessary physical and mental suffering
and injury

5. No experiment where there is an a priori

reason to believe death or disabling injury
will occur
Nuremberg Code – 1947 – cont’d
6. Degree of risk should never exceed
humanitarian importance of problem

7. Proper preparation and facilities to

protect the subject against even the
remote possibility of injury, disability, or
death
Nuremberg Code – 1947 – cont’d
8. Experiment conducted only by
scientifically qualified persons

9. Subject has the right to bring the

experiment to an end at any time

10. The scientist in charge must be prepared to

end the experiment at any stage
Research ethics and why you should
act ethically
‘norms or standards of behaviour that guide moral choices about our
behaviour and our relationships with others’(Cooper and Schindler
2013 in Saunders et al. 2016).
Dissertations will be guided by your university’s code of ethics or
ethical guidelines[Research ethics committees].
Your individual ethics -equally important.
General ethical issues
 Privacy of possible and actual participants;
Voluntary nature of participation and the right to withdraw partially or
completely from the process;
 Consent and possible deception of participants;
 Maintenance of the confidentiality of data provided by individuals or
identifiable participants and their anonymity;
 Reactions of participants to the way in which you seek to collect data,
including embarrassment, stress, discomfort, pain and harm;
effects on participants of the way in which you use, analyse and report
your data, in particular the avoidance of embarrassment, stress,
discomfort, pain and harm;
behaviour and objectivity of you as researcher.
Ethical issues at specific stages
of the research process
Population and Sampling
Population-refers to all the objects under study
Sample-is the subset of the population. Used when it is not feasible to
deal with the entire population.
Census-covers the entire population but this is expensive.
Where the population is small, the researcher may deal with all the
objects.
Population and Sample
Why a Sample?
 Impracticable to survey the entire population;
Budget constraints prevent researcher from surveying the entire
population;
Time constraints prevent researcher from surveying the entire
population;
 The need for quick results.
Sampling techniques
Two broad categories of sampling techniques:
Probability or representative sampling;
Non-probability or judgemental sampling.
Sampling techniques
Probability sampling is –
 a controlled, randomized procedure that ensures
 that each population element is given a known
nonzero chance of selection;
 used to draw participants that are representative of a
target population;
 necessary for projecting findings from the sample to
the target population.
Sampling techniques
Probability sampling- 4stages:
1 Identify a suitable sampling frame (target population) based on
your research question(s) or objectives.
2 Decide on a suitable sample size.
3 Select the most appropriate sampling technique and select the
sample.
4 Check that the sample is representative of the population.
Sample Size
“The larger your sample’s size the lower the likely
error in generalising to the population” (Saunders
et al. 2016:279).
Statisticians have also shown that a sample size of
30 or more will be closer to a normal distribution.
a minimum number of 30 for statistical analyses
provides a useful rule of thumb.
Where the population in the category is less than
30, Sample=population
statistical inference –making
conclusions about the population based
on the sample.
Using secondary data
Data that have already been collected for some other purpose.
Research in this case involves re-analysis.
Include both raw data and published summaries.

Types of Secondary Data

Advantages and disadvantages
of secondary data
Advantages
May have fewer resource requirements
Unobtrusive (not conspicuous –clearly visible) -may be the only alternative and
the data have been collected and are available
Longitudinal studies may be feasible
Can provide comparative and contextual data
Can result in unforeseen discoveries
Permanence of data
Disadvantages
May be collected for a purpose that does not match your need
Access may be difficult or costly
Aggregations and definitions may be unsuitable
No real control over data quality
Initial purpose may affect how data are presented
Evaluating potential secondary data sources
Primary data Collection Methods
Observation
Interviews
Questionnaires