Research Methodology

Research methodology
Chapter one
Research Methodology is the examination of the sources of knowledge.
Definition of Research
• The term ‘research’ consists of two words: Research: Re+ search ‘Re’ means again and again and
‘search’ means to find out something.
Sources of Knowledge (Jones, 1971; Cohen)
1. Authority as a Source of Knowledge
2. Tradition as a Source of Knowledge
3. Media Myths as a Source of Knowledge
4. Experience as a Source of Knowledge
5. Faith as a Source of Knowledge
6. Reason as a source of Knowledge
7. Science as a Source of Knowledge
Objectives of research
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been
discovered yet. Kothari (1990)
Other objectives of research
 To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it.
 To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group.
 To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables.

 To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else.
Motivation in research
• Desire to get a research degree with its consequential benefits

• Desire to face challenge in solving unsolved problems
• Desire to get intellectual joy of doing more creative work
• Desire to be of service to society
• Desire to get respectability (Kothari, 1990).
Other things that can motivate people
• directives of government
• employment conditions
• curiosity about new things
• desire to understand causal relationships
• social thinking and awakening
General Characteristics of Research
• It gathers new knowledge or data from primary or first-hand sources.

• It places emphasis upon the discovery of general principles.
• It is an extent systematic and accurate investigation.
• It uses certain valid data gathering devices.
• It is logical and exact.
• Research is patient and unhurried activity
• Research is carefully recorded and reported.
Criteria of a Good Research
• Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be
taken in specified sequence in accordance with the well-defined set of rules.
• Good research is logical
• Good research is replicable
Chapter 2 Research and the Research Process
Scientific research
• Scientific research is a process-oriented activity.

• Scientific research is a systematic, logical, empirical, replicable and transmittable activity (see
Tuckman 1972).
Research process can be defined as the step-by-step actions taken in conducting a particular research
Following research process
1. Select a Research Topic in area of interest
2. Develop Research Question(s)
3. Adopt relevant Hypothesis (or hypotheses)
4. Search for relevant or supportive Literature

5. Select appropriate Research Design
6. Collect Data
7. Analyze & Interpret Data
8. Write Complete Report
Typology is a form of classificatory scheme that identifies and presents different types of an issue or
phenomenon on the basis of both similar and contrasting characteristics within the specific typical
groups.
Two broad typological schemes
 Typology based on Purpose of Research, and

 Typology based on Method and /or Setting of Research (See Obasi, 1999).
Types of typology based on purpose of research
 pure (basic) research and

 Applied research.
Pure (basic or academic) research is intellectually based and is concerned with the seeking of
knowledge for its own sake and to satisfy intellectual curiosity.
Applied research is primarily aimed at finding solutions to specific behavioral or organizational

problems of society (ADF, 1993).
Types of typology based on method
a. Quantitative
b. Qualitative
Quantitative research is one that investigates phenomena that are amenable to empirical measurement
and verification.
Qualitative research is one which has variables that are not easily or objectively amenable to empirical
measurement and verification.
A qualitative research is usually executed through documentary research design. Historical and
philosophical studies also fall under this category.
Types of typology based on setting of Research

a. Experimental
b. Non-experimental
Experimental research is one that involves taking action to influence a phenomenon under study and
then observing the consequences of the influence.
Non- experimental research does not require the use of experimental and control groups.
Experimental has three essential components
 independent and dependent variables
 Experimental and control groups
 Pre-testing and post-testing exercise or activity (ADF: 1993).
Data collection techniques
Data collection techniques
 Allow us to systematically collect information about our objects of study and about the settings
in which they occur.
The sources used in the health system research can be classified as
 Available sources
 Empirical sources
Available sources
 it is a data that has already been collected by others for different purposes.
Available sources
1) Published Sources: from journals, texts, library
2) Non-published: investigators research institutions, reports.
Advantage of Available Sources
 Is inexpensive
 Permits examination of trends over the past.
Disadvantage of Available Sources

 Data is not always easily accessible.
 Information may be in- complete
 Data collection may not be standardized.
 Empirical sources:
 Questionnaire instrument:-self administered by others
 Observation –participant
Various data collection techniques:
 Using available information
 Observing
 Interviewing (face-to-face)
 Administering written questionnaires
 Focus group discussions
Questionnaire is a data collection tool in which written questions are presented that are to be answered
by the respondents in written form.
Interview Technique
 Interviewing is finding out what is in and on someone’s mind. We interview to find out from
them those things we can’t directly observe.
 An interview is a data-collection technique that involves oral questioning of respondents, either

individually or as a group.
Types of Interviews
 Informal, conversational interview

 General interview guide approach
 Standardized, open-ended interview
 Closed, fixed-response interview
Stages in data collection
 Permission to proceed
 Data collection
 Data handling
Sampling
Sampling is a process by which we study a small part of a population to make judgments about the
entire population.
Advantages of sampling
 Reduced Cost
 Greater Accuracy
 Sampling Error
 Greater Speed
 Feasibility
Definition of sampling terms
 Target Population: the population of interest, to which the investigator would like to generalize
the results of the study.
 Study population: the specific population from which data are collected.
 Sampling unit: subject under observation on which information is collected.
 Sampling fraction: ratio between the sample size and the population size
 Sampling frame: list of all the sampling units in the population from which a sample is to be
picked.
 Sampling scheme (Design): method of selecting sampling units from sampling frame.
Reasons for Sampling
 For an exploratory purpose – to get general impression of the total population.

 For the purpose of obtaining estimates on certain characteristics of the population.
Two categories of sampling methods:
 Non probability sampling

 Probability sampling
Non probability sampling

 A type of sampling where each study unit in the population has an unknown probability of
inclusion in the sample.
Types of Non probability Sampling
 Voluntary/self selection
 Judgmental /Purposive
 Convenience / haphazard
Volunteer/self selection
 Subjects selected are volunteers who show interest to the study.
Purposive/Judgemental
 The researchers choose the sample based on who they think would be appropriate for the
study.
Convenience
 Selection of subjects based on easy availability & accessibility
Probability sampling
 Selection of a sample from a population, based on the principle of randomization or chance.

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Research methodology

Research Methodology is the examination of the sources of knowledge.

Sources of Knowledge (Jones, 1971; Cohen)

1. Authority as a Source of Knowledge

2. Tradition as a Source of Knowledge

3. Media Myths as a Source of Knowledge

4. Experience as a Source of Knowledge

5. Faith as a Source of Knowledge

6. Reason as a source of Knowledge

7. Science as a Source of Knowledge

Other objectives of research

 To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it.

 To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group.

 To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables.

• Desire to get a research degree with its consequential benefits

Other things that can motivate people

General Characteristics of Research

• It gathers new knowledge or data from primary or first-hand sources.

Criteria of a Good Research

• Good research is logical

• Good research is replicable

Chapter 2 Research and the Research Process

• Scientific research is a process-oriented activity.

Following research process

1. Select a Research Topic in area of interest

2. Develop Research Question(s)

3. Adopt relevant Hypothesis (or hypotheses)

4. Search for relevant or supportive Literature

7. Analyze & Interpret Data

8. Write Complete Report

Two broad typological schemes

 Typology based on Purpose of Research, and

Types of typology based on purpose of research

 pure (basic) research and

Applied research is primarily aimed at finding solutions to specific behavioral or organizational

Types of typology based on method

Types of typology based on setting of Research

Experimental has three essential components

 independent and dependent variables

 Experimental and control groups

 Pre-testing and post-testing exercise or activity (ADF: 1993).

Data collection techniques

Data collection techniques

The sources used in the health system research can be classified as

1) Published Sources: from journals, texts, library

2) Non-published: investigators research institutions, reports.

Advantage of Available Sources

 Permits examination of trends over the past.

Disadvantage of Available Sources

 Information may be in- complete

 Data collection may not be standardized.

 Questionnaire instrument:-self administered by others

Various data collection techniques:

 Using available information

 Administering written questionnaires

 Focus group discussions

 An interview is a data-collection technique that involves oral questioning of respondents, either

 Informal, conversational interview

Stages in data collection