CHAPTER V: RESEARCH DESIGN

5.1.What is Research design?

A research design is a systematic plan to study a scientific problem. The design of
a study defines the study type (descriptive, correlational, semi-experimental,
experimental, review, meta-analytic) and sub-type (e.g., descriptive-longitudinal
case study), research question, hypotheses, independent and dependent variables,
experimental design, and, if applicable, data collection methods and a statistical
analysis plan. Research design is the framework that has been created to seek
answers to research questions. A research design is a set of logical procedures that
(when followed) enables one to obtain evidence to determine the degree to which a
theoretical hypothesis (or set of hypotheses) is/are correct.
Research design can be thought of as the logic or master plan of a research that
throws light on how the study is to be conducted. It shows how all of the major
parts of the research study– the samples or groups, measures, treatments or
programs, etc– work together in an attempt to address the research questions.
Research design is similar to an architectural outline.

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 5.2. Importance of Research Design

• Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the

various research operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible
yielding maximal information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and
money. Just as for better, economical and attractive construction of a house,
we need a blueprint (or what is commonly called the map of the house) well
thought out and prepared by an expert architect, similarly we need a research
design or a plan in advance of data collection and analysis for our research
project.
• Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for
collecting the relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis,
keeping in view the objective of the research and the availability of staff, time
and money. Preparation of the research design should be done with great care
as any error in it may upset the entire project.

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 Cont
• Research design, in fact, has a great bearing on the reliability of the results
arrived at and as such constitutes the firm foundation of the entire edifice of the
research work. Even then the need for a well thought out research design is at
times not realised by many. The importance which this problem deserves is not
given to it. As a result many researches do not serve the purpose for which they
are undertaken. In fact, they may even give misleading conclusions.
• Thoughtlessness in designing the research project may result in rendering the
research exercise futile. It is, therefore, imperative that an efficient and
appropriate design must be prepared before starting research operations. The
design helps the researcher to organize his ideas in a form whereby it will be
possible for him to look for flaws and inadequacies. Such a design can even be
given to others for their comments and critical evaluation. In the absence of such
a course of action, it will be difficult for the critic to provide a comprehensive
review of the proposed study.

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 5.3. Features of a Good Research Design

• A good design is often characterized by adjectives like flexible, appropriate,

efficient, and economical and so on. Generally, the design which minimizes bias
and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and analyzed is considered a
good design. The design which gives the smallest experimental error is
supposed to be the best design in many investigations. Similarly, a design which
yields maximal information and provides an opportunity for considering many
different aspects of a problem is considered most appropriate and efficient
design in respect of many research problems. Thus, the question of good design
is related to the purpose or objective of the research problem and also with the
nature of the problem to be studied. A design may be quite suitable in one case,
but may be found wanting in one respect or the other in the context of some
other research problem. One single design cannot serve the purpose of all types
of research problems.

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 Cont …
• A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually
involves the consideration of the following factors:
(i) The means of obtaining information;
(ii) The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;
(iii) The objective of the problem to be studied;
(iv) The nature of the problem to be studied; and
(v) The availability of time and money for the research work.

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 Types of research design

• Different research designs can be conveniently described if we categorize them

as: (1) research design in case of exploratory research studies; (2) research
design in case of descriptive and (3) research design in case of hypothesis-testing
research studies.
1. Research design in case of exploratory research studies: Exploratory research
studies are also termed as formulative research studies. The main purpose of
such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or of
developing the working hypotheses from an operational point of view. The major
emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights. As such the
research design appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough to provide
opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under study. Inbuilt
flexibility in research design is needed because the research problem, broadly
defined initially, is transformed into one with more precise meaning in
exploratory studies, which fact may necessitate changes in the research
procedure for gathering relevant data.

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 Cont …
2. Research design in case of descriptive studies:
• Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with
describing the characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group. As against
this, studies concerned with specific predictions, with narration of facts and
characteristics concerning individual, group or situation are all examples of
descriptive research studies. Most of the social research comes under this
category. In descriptive studies, the researcher must be able to define clearly,
what he wants to measure and must find adequate methods for measuring it
along with a clear cut definition of ‘population’ he wants to study.
• Descriptive research “is designed to provide a picture of a situation as it
naturally happens”. It may be used to justify current practice and make
judgment and also to develop theories. For the purpose of this study, descriptive
research was used to obtain a picture of nurses’ opinions of pain in patients who
suffer from dementia with a view to improving the standard of care for this
group of patients.

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 Cont …
3. Cross Sectional Design
• Cross sectional design is based on observations made at one point in time.
E.g., survey research.
• In particular, when the data collection strategy is broader in scope
(involves considerably more than one case or a small group) and involves
systematic data collection we use the term cross sectional instead of case
study to describe it.
• With cross sectional designs it is difficult to make inferences about
processes that occur over time ... and hence cause and effect. Usually such
studies are done for exploratory and descriptive research, but sometimes
also for explanatory studies.

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 Cont …

• 4. LONGITUDINAL DESIGNS
• These are studies in which multiple observations are made over time. E.g., survey
research.
• There are three basic types of longitudinal designs: trend studies, cohort studies, and
panel studies.
• Trend Studies
• Trend studies examine changes within some general population over time.
• Cohort Studies
• Cohort studies examine more specific subpopulations (cohorts) as they change over
time.
• Panel Studies
• Panel studies are similar to trend and cohort studies except that the same set of people is
studied each time.
• Panel studies give a more complete picture of how individuals change over time. Cohort
and trend studies uncover only net changes. Example public opinion studies.
Longitudinal studies have an obvious advantage over cross-sectional ones in providing
information describing processes over time. But often this advantage comes at heavy
cost in both time and money ... especially in large scale surveys. Panel studies are the
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best type of longitudinal design to study cause and effect. (Explanatory studies.)
 5.4. Components of Research design

• 5.4.1. Model Development

• 5.4.2. Research Approaches
• 5.4.3. Data Sources
• Data can be obtained from primary or secondary sources. Primary data refer to
information obtained firsthand by the researcher on the variables of interest for
the specific purpose of the study. Secondary data refer to information gathered
from sources already existing.
• Some examples of sources of primary data are individuals, focus groups,
panels of respondents specifically set up by the researcher and from whom
opinions may be sought on specific issues from time to time, or some
unobtrusive sources such as a trash can. The Internet could also serve as a
primary data source when questionnaires are administered over it.
• Data can also be obtained from secondary sources, as for example, company
records or archives, government publications, industry analyses offered by the
media, web sites, the Internet, and so on.

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 5.4.4. Data Gathering instruments

• Data collection methods are an integral part of research design as shown in

the shaded portion in the figure. There are several data collection methods,
each with its own advantages and disadvantages. Problems researched with
the use of appropriate methods greatly enhance the value of the research
• Data can be collected in a variety of ways, in different settings—field or lab—
and from different sources, as we have just discussed. Data collection
methods include interviews—face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews,
computer-assisted interviews, and interviews through the electronic media;
questionnaires that are either personally administered, sent through the mail,
or electronically administered; observation of individuals and events with or
without videotaping or audio recording; and a variety of other motivational
techniques such as projective tests.
• Interviewing, administering questionnaires, and observing people and
phenomena are the three main data collection methods in survey research.

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 `
I. Interviewing

• Interviews could be unstructured or structured, and con- ducted either face to

face or by telephone or online.
• Unstructured interviews are so labeled because the interviewer does not enter the
interview setting with a planned sequence of questions to be asked of the
respondent. The objective of the unstructured interview is to bring some
preliminary issues to the surface so that the researcher can determine what
variables need further in-depth investigation.
• The type and nature of the questions asked of the individuals might vary
according to the job level and type of work done by them.
• In order to understand the situation in its totality, the researcher will interview
employees at several levels. In the initial stages, only broad, open- ended
questions would be asked, and the replies to them would inform the researcher of
the perceptions of the individuals. The type and nature of the questions asked of
the individuals might vary according to the job level and type of work done by
them. For instance, top and middle-level managers might be asked more direct
questions about their perceptions of the problem and the situation. Employees at
lower levels may have to be approached differently.
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 Cont …
• Structured interviews are those conducted when it is known at the outset what
information is needed. The interviewer has a list of predetermined questions
to be asked of the respondents either personally, through the telephone.
• Face-to-Face and Telephone Interviews
• Interviews can be conducted either face to face or over the telephone. They
could also be computer-assisted. Although most unstructured interviews in
organizational research are conducted face to face, structured interviews could
be either face to face or through the medium of the telephone, depending on
the level of complexity of the issues involved, the likely duration of the
interview, the convenience of both parties, and the geographical area covered
by the survey. Telephone interviews are best suited when information from a
large number of respondents spread over a wide geographic area is to be
obtained quickly, and the likely duration of each interview is, say, 10 minutes
or less.

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 Cont…
• Face-to-Face Interviews
• Advantages. The main advantage of face-to-face or direct interviews is that
the researcher can adapt the questions as necessary, clarify doubts, and ensure
that the responses are properly understood, by repeating or rephrasing the
questions. The researcher can also pick up nonverbal cues from the
respondent.
• Disadvantages. The main disadvantages of face-to-face interviews are the
geo- graphical limitations they may impose on the surveys and the vast
resources needed if such surveys need to be done nationally or internationally.
• Telephone Interviews
• Advantages. The main advantage of telephone interviewing, from the
researcher‘s point of view, is that a number of different people can be reached
(if need be, across the country or even internationally) in a relatively short
period of time. From the respondents 'standpoint it would eliminate any
discomfort that some of them might feel in facing the interviewer. It is also
possible that most of them would feel less uncomfortable disclosing personal
information over the phone than face to face.
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 Cont …
• Disadvantages. A main disadvantage of telephone interviewing is that the respondent
could unilaterally terminate the interview without warning or explanation, by hanging up
the phone. Caller ID might further aggravate the situation. This is understandable, given
the numerous telemarketing calls people are bombarded with on a daily basis. To minimize
this type of a nonresponsive problem, it would be advisable to call the interviewee ahead
of time to request participation in the survey, giving an approximate idea of how long the
interview would last, and setting up a mutually convenient time.
• The Questioning Technique
• Funneling
• In the beginning of an unstructured interview, it is advisable to ask open-ended questions
to get a broad idea and form some impressions about the situation. For example a question
that could be asked, would be: What are some of your feelings about working for this
organization?
• Unbiased Questions
• It is important to ask questions in a way that would ensure the least bias in the response.
For example, ―Tell me how you experience your job is a better question than, Boy, the
work you do must be really boring; let me hear how you experience it. The latter question
is ―loaded in terms of the interviewer‘s own perceptions of the job. A loaded question
might influence the types of answers received from the respondent. Bias could be also
introduced by emphasizing certain words, by tone and voice inflections, and through 15
inappropriate suggestions.
 Cont …
• Clarifying Issues

• To make sure that the researcher understands issues as the respondent intends to
represent them, it is advisable to restate or rephrase important information
given by the respondent. For instance, if the interviewee says, there is an unfair
promotion policy in this organization; seniority does not count at all. It is the
juniors who always get promoted; the researcher might interject, So you are
saying that juniors always get promoted over the heads of even capable
seniors. Rephrasing in this way clarifies the issue of whether or not the
respondent considers ability important. If certain things that are being said are
not clear, the researcher should seek clarification.

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 II.Questionnaires

• A questionnaire is a preformulated written set of questions to which

respondents record their answers, usually within rather closely defined
alternatives. Questionnaires are an efficient data collection mechanism
when the researcher knows exactly what is required and how to measure
the variables of interest. Questionnaires can be administered personally,
mailed to the respondents, or electronically distributed.
• Personally Administered Questionnaires
• When the survey is confined to a local area, and the organization is willing
and able to assemble groups of employees to respond to the questionnaires
at the workplace, a good way to collect data is to personally administer the
questionnaires. The main advantage of this is that the researcher or a
member of the research team can collect all the completed responses
within a short period of time. Any doubts that the respondents might have
on any question could be clarified on the spot. The researcher is also
afforded the opportunity to introduce the research topic and motivate the
respondents to offer their frank answers.
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 Cont …
• Mail Questionnaires
• The main advantage of mail questionnaires is that a wide geographical area can
be covered in the survey. They are mailed to the respondents, who can complete
them at their convenience, in their homes, and at their own pace. However, the
return rates of mail questionnaires are typically low. A 30% response rate is
considered acceptable. Another disadvantage of the mail questionnaire is that
any doubts the respondents might have cannot be clarified. Also, with very low
return rates it is difficult to establish the representativeness of the sample
because those responding to the survey may not at all represent the population
they are supposed to. However, some effective techniques can be employed for
improving the rates of response to mail questionnaires. Sending follow-up
letters, enclosing some small monetary amounts as incentives with the
questionnaire, providing the respondent with self-addressed, stamped return
envelopes, and keeping the questionnaire brief do indeed help.

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 Guidelines For Questionnaire Design

• Sound questionnaire design principles should focus on three areas. The first
relates to the wording of the questions. The second refers to planning of issues
of how the variables will be categorized, scaled, and coded after receipt of the
responses. The third pertains to the general appearance of the questionnaire.
• Principles of Wording

• The principles of wording refer to such factors as (1) the appropriateness of the
content of the questions, (2) how questions are worded and the level of sophis-
tication of the language used, (3) the type and form of questions asked, (4) the
sequencing of the questions, and (5) the personal data sought from the
respondents. Each of these is explained below.

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 Cont …
• Content and Purpose of the Questions
• The nature of the variable tapped—subjective feelings or objective facts—
will determine what kinds of questions will be asked. If the variables tapped
are of a subjective nature (e.g., satisfaction, involvement), where respondents
beliefs, perceptions, and attitudes are to be measured, the questions should
tap the dimensions and elements of the concept. Where objective variables
such as age and educational levels of respondents are tapped, a single direct
question—preferably one that has an ordinal scaled set of categories—would
be appropriate. Thus the purpose of each question should be carefully
considered so that the variables are adequately measured and yet no
superfluous questions are asked.
• Language and Wording of the Questionnaire
• The language of the questionnaire should approximate the level of
understand- ing of the respondents. The choice of words would depend on
their educational level, the usage of terms and idioms in the culture, and the
frames of reference of the respondents.
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 Type and Form of Questions
• Type of question refers to whether the question will be open-ended or closed.
Form refers to positively and negatively worded questions.
• Open-Ended versus Closed Questions. Open-ended questions allow
respondents to answer them in any way they choose. An example of an open-
ended question is asking the respondent to state five things that are interesting
and challenging in the job. Another example is asking what the respondents like
about their supervisors or their work environment. A third example is to invite
their comments on the investment portfolio of the firm.
• A closed question, in contrast, would ask the respondents to make choices
among a set of alternatives given by the researcher. For instance, instead of
asking the respondent to state any five aspects of the job that she finds
interesting and challenging, the researcher might list 10 or 15 aspects that might
seem interesting or challenging in jobs and ask the respondents to rank the first
five among these in the order of their preference. All items in a questionnaire
using a nominal, ordinal, or Likert or ratio scale are considered closed. Closed
questions help the respondents to make quick decisions to choose among the
several alternatives before them. They also help the researcher to code the
information easily for subsequent analysis. 21
 5.4.5. Sampling plan
• Surveys are useful and powerful in finding answers to research questions through data
collection and subsequent analyses, but they can do more harm than good if the
population is not correctly targeted. That is, if data are not collected from the people,
events, or objects that can provide the correct answers to solve the problem, the survey
would be in vain.
• Whereas Population refers to the entire group of people, events, or things of interest
that the researcher wishes to investigate.
• The population frame is a listing of all the elements in the population from which the
sample is drawn. The payroll of an organization would serve as the population frame if
its members are to be studied.
• Sampling is the process of selecting a sufficient number of elements from the
population, so that a study of the sample and an understanding of its properties or
characteristics would make it possible for us to generalize such properties or
characteristics to the population elements. The characteristics of the population such as
μ (the population mean), σ (the population standard deviation), and σ2 (the population
variance) are referred to as its parameters.
• As such, all conclusions drawn about the sample under study are generalized to the
population. In other words, the sample statistics Ẍ (the sample mean), S (standard
deviation), and S2 (the variation in the sample) are used as estimates of the population
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parameters μ, σ, and σ2.
 Characteristics Of A Good Sample Design

• From what has been stated above, we can list down the characteristics of a good
sample design as under:
(a) Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.
(b) Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error.
(c) Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research
study.
(d) Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a better
way.
(e) Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in
general, for the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.

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 types of sampling designs
• There are two major types of sampling designs: probability and non-
probability sampling. In probability sampling, the elements in the
population have some known chance or probability of being selected as
sample subjects. In non-probability sampling, the elements do not have a
known or predetermined chance of being selected as subjects.
•

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 Cont …
1. simple random sampling, every element in the population has a known and equal chance
of being selected as a subject. Has the least bias and offers the most generalizability.
However, this sampling process could become cumbersome and expensive; in addition an
entirely updated listing of the population may not always be available.
2. Systematic sampling:
• In some instances, the most practical way of sampling is to select every ith item on a list.
Sampling of this type is known as systematic sampling. An element of randomness is
introduced into this kind of sampling by using random numbers to pick up the unit with
which to start. For instance, if a 4 per cent sample is desired, the first item would be
selected randomly from the first twenty-five and thereafter every 25th item would
automatically be included in the sample.
• Thus, in systematic sampling only the first unit is selected randomly and the remaining
units of the sample are selected at fixed intervals. Although a systematic sample is not a
random sample in the strict sense of the term, but it is often considered reasonable to treat
systematic sample as if it were a random sample. Systematic sampling has certain plus
points. It can be taken as an improvement over a simple random sample in as much as the
systematic sample is spread more evenly over the entire population. It is an easier and
less costlier method of sampling and can be conveniently used even in case of large
populations. But there are certain dangers too in using this type of sampling. If there is a
hidden periodicity in the population, systematic sampling will prove to be an inefficient
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method of sampling.
 Cont …
3. Stratified sampling:
• If a population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a
homogeneous group, stratified sampling technique is generally applied in order
to obtain a representative sample. Under stratified sampling the population is
divided into several sub-populations that are individually more homogeneous
than the total population (the different sub-populations are called ‘strata’) and
then we select items from each stratum to constitute a sample. Since each
stratum is more homogeneous than the total population, we are able to get
more precise estimates for each stratum and by estimating more accurately
each of the component parts, we get a better estimate of the whole. In brief,
stratified sampling results in more reliable and detailed information.
• 5.4.6. Selecting analytical methods: statistical tools

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 5.4.6.1. Variables and measurement scales

• In our daily life we are said to measure when we use some yardstick to
determine weight, height, or some other feature of a physical object.
Measurement is a relatively complex and demanding task, especially so when it
concerns qualitative or abstract phenomena. By measurement we mean the
process of assigning numbers to objects or observations, the level of
measurement being a function of the rules under which the numbers are
assigned.
• From what has been stated above, we can write that scales of measurement can
be considered in terms of their mathematical properties. The most widely used
classification of measurement scales are: (a) nominal scale; (b) ordinal scale;
(c) interval scale; and (d) ratio scale.
(a) Nominal scale: Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning number or
symbols to events in order to label them. The usual example of this is the
assignment of numbers of basketball players in order to identify them. Such
numbers cannot be considered to be associated with an ordered scale for their
order is of no consequence; the numbers are just convenient labels for the
particular class of events and as such have no quantitative value. Nominal
scales provide convenient ways of keeping track of people, objects and events.
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 Cont …
• One cannot do much with the numbers involved. For example, one cannot
usefully average the numbers on the back of a group of football players and
come up with a meaningful value. Neither can one usefully compare the numbers
assigned to one group with the numbers assigned to another. The counting of
members in each group is the only possible arithmetic operation when a nominal
scale is employed. Accordingly, we are restricted to use mode as the measure of
central tendency. There is no generally used measure of dispersion for nominal
scales. Chi-square test is the most common test of statistical significance that can
be utilized, and for the measures of correlation, the contingency coefficient can
be worked out. Nominal scale is the least powerful level of measurement. It
indicates no order or distance relationship and has no arithmetic origin. A
nominal scale simply describes differences between things by assigning them to
categories.

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 Cont …

(b) Ordinal scale: The lowest level of the ordered scale that is commonly used is the
ordinal scale. The ordinal scale places events in order, but there is no attempt to make
the intervals of the scale equal in terms of some rule. Rank orders represent ordinal
scales and are frequently used in research relating to qualitative phenomena. A
student’s rank in his graduation class involves the use of an ordinal scale. One has to
be very careful in making statement about scores based on ordinal scales. For
instance, if Ram’s position in his class is 10 and Mohan’s position is 40, it cannot be
said that Ram’s position is four times as good as that of Mohan. The statement would
make no sense at all. Ordinal scales only permit the ranking of items from highest to
lowest. Ordinal measures have no absolute values, and the real differences between
adjacent ranks may not be equal.
• All that can be said is that one person is higher or lower on the scale than another, but
more precise comparisons cannot be made. Thus, the use of an ordinal scale implies a
statement of ‘greater than’ or ‘less than’ (an equality statement is also acceptable)
without our being able to state how much greater or less. The real difference between
ranks 1 and 2 may be more or less than the difference between ranks 5 and 6. Since
the numbers of this scale have only a rank meaning, the appropriate measure of
central tendency is the median. A percentile or quartile measure is used for measuring
dispersion. Correlations are restricted to various rank order methods. Measures of
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statistical significance are restricted to the non-parametric methods.
 Cont …
(c) Interval scale: In the case of interval scale, the intervals are adjusted in terms of some
rule that has been established as a basis for making the units equal. The units are equal
only in so far as one accepts the assumptions on which the rule is based. Interval
scales can have an arbitrary zero, but it is not possible to determine for them what may
be called an absolute zero or the unique origin. The
• Primary limitation of the interval scale is the lack of a true zero; it does not have the
capacity to measure the complete absence of a trait or characteristic. The Fahrenheit
scale is an example of an interval scale and shows similarities in what one can and
cannot do with it. One can say that an increase in temperature from 30° to 40°
involves the same increase in temperature as an increase from 60° to 70°, but one
cannot say that the temperature of 60° is twice as warm as the temperature of 30°
because both numbers are dependent on the fact that the zero on the scale is set
arbitrarily at the temperature of the freezing point of water.
(d) Ratio scale: Ratio scales have an absolute or true zero of measurement. The term
‘absolute zero’ is not as precise as it was once believed to be. We can conceive of an
absolute zero of length and similarly we can conceive of an absolute zero of time. For
example, the zero point on a centimeter scale indicates the complete absence of length
or height. But an absolute zero of temperature is theoretically unobtainable and it
remains a concept existing only in the scientist’s mind. 30
 Cont …
• Ratio scale represents the actual amounts of variables. Measures of
physical dimensions such as weight, height, distance, etc. are examples.
Generally, all statistical techniques are usable with ratio scales and all
manipulations that one can carry out with real numbers can also be carried
out with ratio scale values. Multiplication and division can be used with
this scale but not with other scales mentioned above. Thus, proceeding
from the nominal scale (the least precise type of scale) to ratio scale (the
most precise), relevant information is obtained increasingly. If the nature of
the variables permits, the researcher should use the scale that provides the
most precise description.

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 Sources of Error in Measurement
• Measurement should be precise and unambiguous in an ideal research study. This
objective, however, is often not met with in entirety. As such the researcher must be
aware about the sources of error in measurement. The following are the possible
sources of error in measurement.
(a) Respondent: At times the respondent may be reluctant to express strong negative
feelings or it is just possible that he may have very little knowledge but may not admit
his ignorance. All this reluctance is likely to result in an interview of ‘guesses.’
Transient factors like fatigue, boredom, anxiety, etc. may limit the ability of the
respondent to respond accurately and fully.
(b) Situation: Situational factors may also come in the way of correct measurement. Any
condition which places a strain on interview can have serious effects on the
interviewer-respondent rapport.
• For instance, if someone else is present, he can distort responses by joining in or
merely by being present. If the respondent feels that anonymity is not assured, he may
be reluctant to express certain feelings.
(c) Measurer: The interviewer can distort responses by rewording or reordering
questions. His behaviour, style and looks may encourage or discourage certain replies
from respondents. Careless mechanical processing may distort the findings. Errors
may also creep in because of incorrect coding, faulty tabulation and/or statistical
calculations, particularly in the data-analysis stage. 32
 Cont …

(d) Instrument: Error may arise because of the defective measuring

instrument. The use of complex words, beyond the comprehension of the
respondent, ambiguous meanings, poor printing, inadequate space for
replies, response choice omissions, etc. are a few things that make the
measuring instrument defective and may result in measurement errors.
Another type of instrument deficiency is the poor sampling of the universe
of items of concern.
• Researcher must know that correct measurement depends on successfully
meeting all of the problems listed above. He must, to the extent possible,
try to eliminate, neutralize or otherwise deal with all the possible sources
of error so that the final results may not be contaminated.

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 Tests of Sound Measurement
• Sound measurement must meet the tests of validity, reliability and
practicality. In fact, these are the three major considerations one should
use in evaluating a measurement tool. “Validity refers to the extent to
which a test measures what we actually wish to measure. Reliability has to
do with the accuracy and precision of a measurement procedure ...
Practicality is concerned with a wide range of factors of economy,
convenience, and interpretability

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 Cont …
1. Test of Validity
• Validity is the most critical criterion and indicates the degree to which an
instrument measures what it is supposed to measure. Validity can also be thought
of as utility. In other words, validity is the extent to which differences found with
a measuring instrument reflect true differences among those being tested.
• But one can certainly consider three types of validity in this connection: (i)
Content validity; (ii) Criterion-related validity and (iii) Construct validity.
(i) Content validity is the extent to which a measuring instrument provides adequate
coverage of the topic under study. If the instrument contains a representative
sample of the universe, the content validity is good. Its determination is
primarily judgmental and intuitive. It can also be determined by using a panel of
persons who shall judge how well the measuring instrument meets the standards,
but there is no numerical way to express it.
(ii) Criterion-related validity relates to our ability to predict some outcome or
estimate the existence of some current condition. This form of validity reflects
the success of measures used for some empirical estimating purpose. The
concerned criterion must possess the following qualities: 35
 Cont …

• Relevance: (A criterion is relevant if it is defined in terms we judge to be the

proper measure.)
• Freedom from bias: (Freedom from bias is attained when the criterion gives
each subject an equal opportunity to score well.)
• Reliability: (A reliable criterion is stable or reproducible.)
• Availability: (The information specified by the criterion must be available.)
• In fact, a Criterion-related validity is a broad term that actually refers to (i)
Predictive validity and (ii) Concurrent validity. The former refers to the
usefulness of a test in predicting some future performance whereas the latter
refers to the usefulness of a test in closely relating to other measures of
known validity. Criterion-related validity is expressed as the coefficient of
correlation between test scores and some measure of future performance or
between test scores and scores on another measure of known validity.

36
 Cont …
(iii) Construct validity is the most complex and abstract. A measure is said to
possess construct validity to the degree that it confirms to predicted correlations
with other theoretical propositions. Construct validity is the degree to which
scores on a test can be accounted for by the explanatory constructs of a sound
theory. For determining construct validity, we associate a set of other
propositions with the results received from using our measurement instrument.
If measurements on our devised scale correlate in a predicted way with these
other propositions, we can conclude that there is some construct validity.
2. Test of Reliability
• The test of reliability is another important test of sound measurement. A
measuring instrument is reliable if it provides consistent results. Reliable
measuring instrument does contribute to validity.
3. Test of Practicality
• The practicality characteristic of a measuring instrument can be judged in terms
of economy, convenience and interpretability. From the operational point of
view, the measuring instrument ought to be practical i.e., it should be
economical, convenient and interpretable.
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Scale Construction Techniques

38
 Summary
• 12 Major Types of Research Designs
1. Action Research Design(This is a collaborative and adaptive research design
that lends itself to use in work or community situations.
2. Case Study Design(A case study is an in-depth study of a particular research
problem rather than a sweeping statistical survey or comprehensive comparative
inquiry.
3. Causal Design(Causality studies may be thought of as understanding a
phenomenon in terms of conditional statements in the form, “If X, then Y.” This
type of research is used to measure what impact a specific change will have on
existing norms and assumptions)
4. Cohort Design(Often used in the medical sciences, but also found in the applied
social sciences, a cohort study generally refers to a study conducted over a
period of time involving members of a population which the subject or
• representative member comes from, and who are united by some commonality
or similarity.

39
 Cont …

5. Cross-Sectional Design(Cross-sectional studies provide a clear 'snapshot‘ of the

outcome and the characteristics associated with it, at a specific point in time.
6. Descriptive Design(Descriptive research designs help provide answers to the
questions of who, what, when, where, and how associated with a particular
research problem; a descriptive study cannot conclusively ascertain answers to
why. Descriptive research is used to obtain information concerning the current
status of the phenomena and to describe "what exists" with respect to variables
or conditions in a situation.
7. Experimental Design(Experimental research allows the researcher to control the
situation. In so doing, it allows researchers to answer the question, “What
causes something to occur?”
8. Exploratory Design(conducted about a research problem when there are few or
no earlier studies)
9. Historical Design(The historical approach is well suited for trend analysis.)

40
 Cont …
10. Longitudinal Design(A longitudinal study follows the same sample over time
and makes repeated observations)
11. Meta-Analysis Design(Meta-analysis is an analytical methodology designed
to systematically evaluate and summarize the results from a number of
individual studies
12. Observational Design(This type of research design draws a conclusion by
comparing subjects against a control group, in cases where the researcher has
no control over the experiment.

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