Sub.

Code : 21CS52

Sub.Name : Computer
Networks
 Module - I
Introduction
to
Networks
 Network Hardware
• Share the information access from anywhere
through network
• Group of computer connected with each other
through wires, optical fibers or optical links.
• So that various devices can interact with each
other through a network.
• The AIM of the CN is the sharing of resources
among various devices.
 Network Hardware
.
• Computer network is one of the system
multiple computer connected with each other
to share the information resource..
• Computer network also called as data network
Some of the things that networks are used
for include
• Communicating using Email,video,instant
messaging and other methods.
• Sharing devices such asprinter, scanner,
photocopiers
• Sharing files
• Sharing software and operating programs on
remote systems.
• Allowing n/w users to easily access and
maintain information.
 Uses of computer network
• 1. Business Applications
• 2. Home Applications
• 3 Mobile Users
• 4 Social Issues
 1. Business Applications

• client-server model. It is widely used and forms the

basis of much network usage.
• communication medium among employees. Email
(electronic mail), which employees generally use for
a great deal of daily communication.
• Telephone calls between employees may be carried
by the computer network instead of by the phone
company. This technology is called IP telephony or
Voice over IP (VoIP) when Internet technology is
used.
• Desktop sharing lets remote workers see and
interact with a graphical computer screen
1. Business Applications
• These clint are connecting with network are
using one server.
• Server is a business orgnazation
• Customer interact with business org with help
of the network

• 1)Resource Sharing (h/w,s/w,I/f)

• 2)Providing communication medium also
• Ex: email,video conferencing
• 3)its also doing business electronically
(B2B,B2Customer,E-comers)
 Goals of Network Companies
• 1)resource sharing (equipment,program,data
etc..)
• 2)high reliability (replicated data ,h/w)
• 3)saving money (nowadays everything
developed by client server model)
Client server model
 2. Home Applications
• peer-to-peer communication
• person-to-person communication
(Email,VC,news group)
• electronic commerce
• entertainment.(game playing,TV)
 Electronic Commerce

Tag Full Name Ex

B2C Business To Consumers We are collecting something &paying

Eg : ordering book

B2B Business To Business CAR manufacturing ordering types from

suppliers
G2C Govt To Consumers Eg : Tax Forms
Will be issued from online

C2C Consumers To Consumers Auctioning second hand product online

OLX ( place in OLX)
P2P PEER TO PEER FILE SHARING
 Mobile Users
• Text messaging or texting
• Smart phones,
• GPS (Global Positioning System)
• m-commerce
• NFC (Near Field Communication)
 4 Social Issues
• With the good comes the bad, as this new-
found freedom brings with it many unsolved
social, political, and ethical issues. Social
networks, message boards, content sharing
sites, and a host of other applications allow
people to share their views with like-minded
individuals. As long as the subjects are
restricted to technical topics or hobbies like
gardening, not too many problems will arise.
1.Phishing ATTACK :
Like hackers
a.Spear phishing (account related)
b.Whaling (attack with higher position)
c.Smishing (rummy message)
 2. BOTNET ATTACK

• Combination of robot & network

• It is the collection of infected systems.
• Attack with virus
• Downloaded for unwanted application
• Avoid for antivirus
• Botnet used to perform distribution denial-of-
service attack (DDoS ATTACK) steal data,send
spam,and allows the attackers to access the
device and its connection.
 Physical Structures
• Before discussing networks, we need to define
some network attributes.
• Point-to-Point: A point-to-point connection
provides a dedicated link between two devices.
The entire capacity of the link is reserved for
transmission between those two devices.
• Multipoint: A multipoint (also called multi-
drop) connection is one in which more than
two specific devices share a single link.
Data Communication Five Components
• Message
• Sender
• Receiver
• Transmission medium
• Protocol
• 2 way : 1.wired 2.wireless
S.No Wired Wireless communication
communication
1 Better Securities' There is changes of
speed will more hacking Security less

2 Speed will more Speed less

 Data Flow
• Simplex
• Duplex
• Fullduplex
 Network Topology
• Structure of network of how all the
components are interconnected to each other.
Physical Topology
 BUS Topology
• All the nodes are connected through a single
cable known as backbone cable.
• Transmit data from one end to the other in
single directional (unidirectional).
• Advantages :
installation is easy
cables required is less compared to star
and mesh topologies.
failure of one node dose not affect other
nodes.
• Disadvantages:
if backbone cable fails it affects the whole
systems.
fault detection is difficult
 RING Topology
• Each device is connected to exactly two other
devices and forms a ring.
• Advantages :
easy to install and expand
possibility of collision is less
• Disadvantages:
damage in one node affects overall network
troubleshooting is difficult
 Star Topology
• All the nodes are connected is a central
controller (switch, hub etc…)
• Advantages :
• breakdown in one link doesnot affect
communication.
• provides privacy and security.
• fault is diagnosed easily.
• Disadvantages:
installition and configuration is hard
cost of maintaintance is high.
 MESS Topology
• Each device is connected to every other
devices through a dedicated link.
• Advantages :
• troubleshooting is easy.
• if a node fails, it does not affect other nodes
• addition, deletion moving end devices
• Disadvantages:
failure in hub affects the overall network.
performance depends on hubs capacity.
cost of installation is high.
Tree Topology (hierarchical topology)
• Advantages :
• easily expandable
• easily manageable
• error detection correction is easy
• breakdown of one node does not affect
• Disadvantages:
If root node fails,overall network fails
Cost of installition is high
 Hybrid Topology
• Combination of two or more topologies.
• Advantages :
• flexible
• size can be increased easily
• Disadvantages:
design is complex
installation and maintenance cost is high
fault detection is difficult
 Types of network
• 1.PAN (Personal Area Network)
• 2.LAN (Local Area Network)
• 3.MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
• 4.WAN (Wide Area Network)
 1.PAN (Personal Area Network)

• Smellest network
• Range lessthan 10m
• Ex :Blutooth,Printer,Keyboard,Mouse
• Personal computer is called as home network
• Support with wire & wireless also
• Wired – usb,printer,mouse etc…
• Wireless – blutooth,wifi etc….
 Types of PAN
• Wireless PAN : BLUTOOTH ,WI-FI

• Wired PAN : mouse ,

keyboard ,printers
LAN
 LAN
• LAN IS collection of network devices
connected together in one physical location.
• This is for star topology
• Network devices
• device connect n/w entities there are known
as connectivity devices.
• (HUB,repeater,switch ,wireless access
point,router,firewall etc….)
 LAN
• Group of computers connected to each other
in a small area.
• Rang : 10m – 1km
• Data transfer rate is high
• These computers connected with co-oxial
cable & routers
• LAN also we can connected with wire,wireless
• Resource sharing is very easy
• We can share the data particular system
• Used for small industry,school,office etc…
 LAN ADVANTAGES
• You can create LAN N/W for home and
personal use.
• Making of LAN N/W to easy and have basic
knowledge.
• Access to one LAN N/W to other LANs N/W
and the internet connection to connected
devices.
 LAN DISADVANTAGES
• LAN can connect small geographical area only
(communicate with particular devices)

• LAN N/W have limited security features.

• LAN N/W require cable wiring for depending

the building size and number of devices.
 MAN
• Formed by interconnecting various LANS
range upto 100km
• (ex. Group of lan connected with server)
 WAN
• High geo graphical area
• Provide connectivity to MANs & LANs
• Range up to 1000km
 Data Flow
• Communication between two devices can be
simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex as shown
in Figure
• 1. Simplex
• 2. Half-Duplex
• 3. Full-Duplex
 Network Software
• Design issues:

• 1.protocol hierarchies.
• 2.design issues of layer.
• 3.connection oriented & connectionless
service between layer.
• 4service primitives.
• 5the relationship of service protocol.
 2.design issues of layer.
• Identify sender & receiver
• Multicomputer who’s sender&receiver
• Everything based on addressing mode
• Data transfer from
• Simplex
• Half duplex
• Full duplex
• Logical channel priority
• Error control /sequence of pieces.
Connection oriented & connection less
co cl
telephone Posttal
Handshaking No
possible
Have Connection No
established
More reliable then Less
c/l
slow faster
 Service primitives ofn/w s/w
• A service is formally defined by a set of operation
avl to user process to access the services.
• c/o primitives:
• LISTEN (block waiting for an incoming connection)
• CONNECT(establish a connection with a waiting
peer)
• RECEIVE
• SEND (s-peer)
• DISCONNECT
 C/L PRIMITIVES
• UNIDATA (sends the packt of data )
• FACILITY REPORT (delivery statics)
 OSI REFERENCE MODEL
• Open System Interconnection Model
• OSI developed by ISO.
• It is a conceptual model that characteristics
and standardizes the communication function
of a telecommunication or computing system
without regard to their underlaying internal
structure technology.
 PHYSICAL LAYER
• It is the lowest layer of the OSI model
• It activates, maintain and deactivates the
physical connections.
• It is responsible for transmission & reception of
the unstructured raw data over network.
• Devices are HUB ,cable,RJ45,RJ11 etc…
• It converts the digital /analog bits into electrical
signal or optical signals.
• Data encoding also done in this layer.
 Data Link Layer
• The main function of this layer is to make sure
data transfer is error one node to another, over
the physical layer.
• Transmitting and receiving data, frames
sequentially is managed by this layer.
• Protocols are ATM,frame,ARP,PPP etc…
• Device are switch and bridge.
• This layer sends and excepts acknowledgements
for frames receive and sent respectively,
resending of non acknowledgement received
frames is also handled by this layer.
• This layer establishes a logical layer between 2
nodes also manage the frame traffic control
over the network.it signals the transmitting
node to stop, when the frame buffers are full.
 Network Layer
• It provides the outing message into packets and
assembles the incoming packets into message for
higher levels.
• It routes the packets through different channels
one node to another node.
• It act as a network controller.it manages the
subnet traffic.
• It decides by which route the data packet should
take.
• Protocols are ipv4,v6,icmp,ipsec ,ipx,apple talk
• Device used is router.
 Transport Layer
• It decides whether data transmission should
be on parallel path or single path.
• Functions such as multiplexing ,somethings or
splitting on the data are done by this layer.
• It receive messages from the session layer
about it,convert the message into smaller
units and passes it on to the network layer.
• Transport layer very complex ,depending upon
the network requirements.
• Protocols are TCP,UDP.
 Session layer
• Session layer manages and synchronize the
conversation between two different
applications.
• Transfer of source to destination session layer
streams of data are marked and are
resynchronished properly ,so that the ends of
the messages are not cut prematurely and
data loss is avoided.
• Protocol are PPTP,SIP,SAP,NetBIOS.
 PRESENTATION LAYER
• PL takes care that the data sent in such a way
that the receiver will understand the
information (data)and will be able use the data.
• While receiving the data ,PL transforms the
data to be ready for the application layer.
• Language (sytax) can be different of the two
communicating systems.under this conditions
PL plays a role of transulator.
• It performs data compression,data
encryption,data conversion etc..
• Protocols are MIME,XDR,SSL
 Application Layer
• It is top most layer .
• Transferring of files disturbing the results to
the user is also done in this layer .mail
services, directory services, network resources
etc. are services provided by application layer.
• This layer mainly holds applications programs
to act as upon the received and to be sent
data.
• Protocols are HTTP,SMTP,DNS,SNMP,TELNET.
The TCP/IP Reference Model:
• TCP/IP or internet protocol
• Developed by ARPANET
• Support client – server model & peer to peer
• TCP /IP having 4 layers
• OSI is a reference model
• TCP /IP implementation of OSI model
• OSI is connection oriented & connection less
service
• TCP/IP is a connection less service.
 Host to Network layer
• Combination of physical and data link layer
• Used to physical transmitting data
• Defines a protocol to connect host
• Pc having some set of rules
 Internetwork layer or N/W
• Packets delivery
• Routing (s-d)
• Avoiding congection control (res)
• Main protocol internet protocol
• Responsible to transmit packets independent
• Packets may not be received in the order that
they have sent
Source Destination
1 4
2 3
3 1
4 2
 Transport layer
• Same things in osi
• Segmenting,splitting,of the data (res)
• Based on BW split the data every divided
• Decides to send the data either single or multiple
or parallel path
• Used to break the data into small units which are
handled efficiently by this layer
• Header information added
• Transmitt error free end to end delivery of
segments
 Application Layer
• Combination of session and presentation layer
• Act interface between host and the service
provided by the transport layer
• Includes high level protocols
• TELNET (2 way communication)
• FTP (file transfer protocol)
• SMTP (T/P electronic mail)
• DNS (DOMAIN NAME SERVICE) used to resolve IP
address to flexile I/F.
 Transmission Medium
• Communication channel that carries
information from sender to receiver
• Controlled by physical layer
 OSI TCP/IP
S.NO

Reference model Implementation of OSI

OSI having 7 layers TCP having 4 layers

Session & presentation Combaincs both session and

separately implemented presentation layer
Model first Protocol first
Protocol next Model next
Model design before protocol
Protocol implemented std Protocol dependent std

Supports Only connection less

c/o
c/l
Classes of transmission media
• Guided Media: Guided media, which are
those that provide a medium from one device
to another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial
cable, and fiber-optic cable.
1.Twisted-Pair Cable:
• Two insulated conductors twisted together
• 2wire – 1 wire carry for signal another one
carry for grounded signal.
• Receiver main work cancel the unwanted
signal. Produce the original output signal.
Twisted-Pair Cable:
• Application for Twisted-Pair Cable:

• Telephone lines
• LANs (10 base-T,100 base-T)

• Types of Twisted-Pair Cable :

• 1.shielded Twisted-Pair Cable
• 2. unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable
UTP VERSUS STP
 UTP
• Most commonly used for twisted pair cable.
• Commonly used for UTP connector RJ45(RJ-
Registered Jack)
• Advantages:
• Least expensive
• Easy to install
• High speed capacity
• Lower capacity and performance in
comparison to STP
• Short distance transmission due to attenuation
 Disadvantages
• Can be used for short distances because of
attenuation
• Susceptible to external interference.
 2.shielded Twisted-Pair Cable
• Advantages :
• Better performance at a higher data rate compared to
unshielded twisted pair cable.
• produce the higher data transmit rate
• eliminators cross talk
• More expensive
• Difficult to install & and manufacture.
• bulky
• Disadvantages :
• Expensive compared to UTP & CO-OXIAL cable
• Heavy weight
 Coaxial Cable
• Transmit at high data rate
• Group of specially wrapped & insulated wires.
• Central copper wire surrounded by PVC (poly
vinyl chloride) insulation.
• PVC insulation covered with metal slave of
copper mesh.
• Metal slave is shielded by thick PVC insulation
Coaxial Cable
 Coaxial Cable
• Used for cable TV,LAN,Telephone
• Both conductor share a common central axial
hence the term “co-axial”.
 Coaxial Cable
• Carries signal of higher frequency ranges then
twisted pair cable.
• No chance for noise affected.
• The most common type of connector used
today is the Bayonet-Neill--Concelman (BNe),
connector.
• Application :
• cable TV network
• Ethernet LANs
• Coaxial Cable advantages :
• bandwidth is high
• transmit signal at high rate
• Cover long distance
• High noise immunity
• Less expensive than fiber optic
 Coaxial Cable disadvantages :

• Fault in the cable causes failure in the entire

network.
• Poor shield connection result in electric noise.
• Despite of small diameter thinnet not used for
Ethernet network
• Base band co-axial cable
• Transmit single signal at a time
• Used for digital transmission
• Must be amplified every 1000ft
• Used for LAN.
• Broad band co-axial cable
• Transmit many signals of different frequency
at a time.
• Used for analog transmission.
 Types of Coaxial Cable
S.No Base band Broad Band
1 Digital transmission Analog transmission

2 Mostly used for LANs Transmitting several simultaneous

signal using different frequency.

3 Transmitting signal at a time with Covers large area compared to base

very high speed band.

4 Cover with small area Cover with large area

3.Fiber-Optic Cable
 3.Fiber-Optic Cable
• Made of glass or plastic
• Transmit signals in form of light

• Principle:
• reflection of lights
 3.Fiber-Optic Cable
• New transmission medium
• Long distance lines
• Used by private companies in implementing
local data communication network.
• Requires a light source with
• injection laser diode (ILD)
• light emitting diode (LED)
• Advantages :
• Higher bandwidth.
• High speed.
• Greater capacity (2 Gbps)
• Long distance transmit signal.
• Less signal attenuation.
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference
• Small Light weight.
• Disadvantages:
• Difficult to Installation and maintenance
• Unidirectional light propagation
• Cost high
• Expensive over short distance
• Requires highly skilled installers
• Adding addition nodes is difficult.
• When I<critical angle ; ray will reflect
• When I>critical angle ; ray will full reflect like
360degree
• When I=critical angle ; light along the surface
Propagation Modes
• SINGLE MODE :
• transmit with single ray of light using only
step index
• The lights is guided down the center of an
externally narrow core.
• Multimode step index :
• transmit with multiple ray of light
• The reflective walls of the fiber move the light
pulses to the receiver.
• Propagation node is a one signal one point to
another point transmit is propagation nodes.
• Multimode graded index :
• Acts to reflact the light towards the center of
the fiber by variation in density.
• Step index:
• core refract index uniform
• Multi index :
• not uniform signal vary
• center side will equally get the output
• Channel connector used for cable TV
• Straight TIP connector using for connecting
network devices.
• Transfer signal only single directional. Another
data transfer from another cable.
• MT-RJ connector
• Application :
• Fiber-optic cable is oftenfound in
backbone networks because its
wide bandwidth is cost-effective..
• Some cable TV companies use a
combination of optical fiber and coaxial
cable,thus creating a hybrid network.
• Local-area networks such as
100Base-FX network (Fast Ethernet)
and 1000Base-X also use fiber-optic cable
 UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS
• Unguided media transport electromagnetic
waves without using a physical conductor. This
type of communication is often referred to as
wireless communication.
• Ground propagation:
• Signal only send for ground level propagate.
• Frequency >2mhz
• sky propagation:
• high frequency signal radiate with inospace
reflect with earth.
• Frequency 2-30 mhz.
• Line of Sight :
• VHFS straight a one antenna to another antenna
will transmit.
• Frequency above 30 mhz
Radio Waves
 Radio Waves
• Penetrate building
• Used in both indoor & outdoor
• Travel long distance
• Omnidirectional means travel in all directions
• Transmit & receiver alignment not required
 Advantages
• At low frequency,radi wave pass through
obstacle
• At high frequency ,radio wave tend to travel in
straight line and bounce the obstacle
• DisAdvantages
• As radio wave travel long distance so interface
between user in problem
• Radio Waves
• Frequency 3khz to 1ghz
• Omini directional (propagate with all
directional,t/m rx antenna no need to alighn.
• The radio waves transmit by one antenna are
sucestaible to interface by another antenna
that may send signal using the frequency or
band.
• Low & medium frequency radio waves…
• Application:
• multicasting
• AM & FM radio
• television
• cardless phones
• pagging
• Advantages:
• an am radio can receive signal inside building
• Disadvantages:
• we cannot isolate a communication to just
inside or outside a building.
Microwaves
 Microwaves
• Cannot pass through obstacle
• Use directional parabolic antenna
• Need line of sight transmission
• Signal week in long distance\
• repeater used at every 35-40 km
 advantages
• Used for telephone,cellular phone ,tv etc..
• Carry thousand of voice channels at same time
• Data t/m rate 16 gbps
• Disadvantages
• Installation cost is high
• Electromagnetic waves having frequencies
between 1 and 300 GHz are called
microwaves.
• Transmit with one directional we need to align
transmitter and receiver.
• Applications:
• Microwaves are used for unicast
communication such as (having 1tr& 1rx)
• cellular telephones,
• satellite networks,
• wireless LANs.
 Infrared

• Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz

to 400 THz (wavelengths from 1 mm to 770 nm)
can be used for short-range communication.
Infrared waves, having high frequencies,
cannot penetrate walls. This advantageous
• characteristic prevents interference between
one system and another; a short- range
communication system in one room cannot be
affected by another system in the next room.
• Advantages :
• Transmitting digital data high rate
• one room communication system not affected
another room.
• Disadvantages:
• Not use long rang communication
• We cannot use in building outside
• Applications:
• Infrared signals can be used for short-range
communication in a closed area using line-of-
sight propagation.