REACTIVITY R.2.

1
How much? The amount of chemical
change
GUIDING QUESTION: HOW ARE CHEMICAL
EQUATIONS USED TO CALCULATE
REACTING RATIOS?
Reactivity 2.1.1: Stoichiometry and
the mole ratio
Chemistry Guide Statements R2.1.1 SL SL

Reactivity 2.1.1 — Chemical equations show the ratio of reactants and products in a reaction.
Deduce chemical equations when reactants and products are specified.

• Include the use of state symbols in chemical • Reactivity 3.2 — When is it useful to use half-
equations equations?
Stoichiometry and the mole ratio SL
Stoichiometry is the quantitative study of the reactants and products involved in a chemical
reaction. If you know the reactants and products, you can write a balanced chemical equation by
adding stoichiometric coefficients before each species to ensure that the number of each type of
atom in the reactants and products is identical (law of conservation of mass).
Stoichiometry and the mole ratio SL
The stoichiometric coefficients in a balanced chemical equation are proportional to the amounts
of reacting species. The ratio of the stoichiometric coeffcients is called the mole ratio. Reactants
will always react in relative amounts equal to the mole ratio of the reactants, to produce relative
amounts of the products equal to the mole ratio of the products.

For example, the equation for the photosynthesis of glucose, C 6H12O6, is given below:

6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) → C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g)

The mole ratio of the reactants is 6:6 which means 1:11, and the mole ratio of the products is 1:6.
This means that equal amounts of carbon dioxide and water will be consumed in the reaction to
produce six times less glucose than oxygen.

NOTE: state symbols are used in chemical equations:

State Symbol
solid s
liquid l
gas g
aqueous solution aq
Knowledge check SL
Exercise

The anaerobic fermentation of glucose, C 6H12O6, forms ethanol, C2H5OH, and carbon dioxide,
CO2. Write the balanced equation for this reaction.
Reactivity 2.1.2 and 2.1.3: Limiting
reactants
Chemistry Guide Statements R2.1.2 SL SL

Reactivity 2.1.2 — The mole ratio of an equation can be used to determine:

• the masses and/or volumes of reactants and products
• the concentrations of reactants and products for reactions occurring in solution.
Calculate reacting masses and/or volumes and concentrations of reactants and products.

• Avogadro’s law and definitions of molar • Structure 1.5—How does the molar volume of
concentration are covered in Structure 1.4. a gas vary with changes in temperature and
The values for Ar given in the data booklet to two pressure?
decimal places should be used in calculations.
• Nature of science, Structure 1.4—In what ways
does Avogadro’s law help us to describe, but
not explain, the behaviour of gases?
Chemistry Guide Statements R2.1.3 SL SL

Reactivity 2.1.3 — The limiting reactant determines the theoretical yield.

Identify the limiting and excess reactants from given data.

• Distinguish between the theoretical yield • Tool 1, Inquiry 1, 2, 3—What errors may
and the experimental yield. cause the experimental yield to be i)
higher and ii) lower than the theoretical
yield?
Limiting reactants SL
The relative amounts of reactants in a reaction mixture might not be equal to the mole ratio, so
some reactants could be left over even if all other reactants are consumed completely. The
limiting reactant is the reactant used up completely, while other reactants are present in excess.

It controls the amount of product formed in the reaction and therefore the theoretical yield of the
reaction. The excess reactant is the reactant that is added to the reaction mixture in a greater
proportion than that required by the mole ratio. Some of the excess reactant will be left over
when the reaction reaches completion.

Example: Imagine that 1.0 mol of hydrogen is mixed with 3.0 mol of oxygen and the
mixture is ignited. An explosion occurs, and hydrogen and oxygen react in a 2:1 mole ratio
(stoichiometric coefficients), producing water. 2H2 (g) + O2 (g)  H2O (l)
n initial (mol) 1 3 0
Δn (mol) -1 -0.5 +1
n final (mol) 0 2.5 1

The reaction stops when all the hydrogen is consumed: 1.0 mol of hydrogen will react with 0.5
mol of oxygen and 2.5 mol of oxygen remains unreacted. Therefore, the final mixture will
contain 1.0 mol of water and 2.5 mol of oxygen.
Limiting reactants SL
2H2 (g) + O2 (g)  H2O
You can find the amount of a substance, n, from
(l) its mass, m, using n=m/M, where M is the molar
n initial (mol) 1 3 0
mass in gmol−1. Molar mass can be calculated
Δn (mol) -1 -0.5 +1 using the Ar values given in the periodic table of
n final (mol) 0 2.5 1 your data booklet.

• n initial (row 1) represents the initial mixture, in which the substances can be present in any
proportions. We can take any amounts of reactants and mix them together, regardless of the
stoichiometric coefficients.
• Δn (row 2) shows how the amount of each substance changes in the course of the reaction.
The sign before each amount shows whether it decreases (for reactants) or increases (for
products). These changes must be proportional to the mole ratio shown by the stoichiometric
coefficients.
• n final (row 3) represents the final mixture, where the amounts of all substances are calculated
as n final= n initial + Δn. As with the initial mixture, the composition of the final mixture is
not related to the stoichiometric coefficients.

In this example, the amount of the reaction product (water) is limited by the amount of hydrogen,
which is consumed completely in the reaction. Therefore, hydrogen is the limiting reactant and
oxygen the excess reactant.
Knowledge check SL
Exercise

Household lighters often contain pressurized butane, C 4H10, which is combusted upon release
according to the following reaction:
2C4H10(g) + 13O2(g) → 8CO2(g) + 10H2O(l)

Determine the limiting reactant in the following mixtures:

a. 20 molecules of C4H10 and 100 molecules of O2
b. 0.20 mol of C4H10 and 2.6mol of O2
c. 8.72g of C4H10 and 28.8g of O2

Solutions:
a. 100 molecules of O2
b. 0.20 mol of C4H10
c. 28.8 g of O2
Limiting reactants SL
The concept of the limiting reactant allows us to determine the extent of reaction. Consider the
mixture of 1.0 mol of hydrogen and 3.0 mol of oxygen again. If we double the amount of
hydrogen, the amount of oxygen that reacts doubles, and the amount of water formed will also
double:
Limiting reactants SL
Limiting reactants SL
Knowledge check SL
Example practice questions 3:
Hydrogen and chlorine react with each other to produce hydrogen chloride, HCl(g). A mixture of
4.54 dm3 of hydrogen, H2(g), and 2.27dm3 of chlorine, Cl2(g), was heated until the reaction was
complete. All volumes are measured at STP.

a. Deduce the balanced equation for this reaction.

b. Determine the limiting reactant.
c. Calculate the volumes, in dm3 at STP, of each substance in the final mixture.

Solution
a. H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)
b. Cl2(g), as both gases are consumed in equal volumes.
c. H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)
Vinitial / dm3 4.54 2.27 0
∆V / dm3 –2.27 –2.27 +4.54
Vfinal / dm3 2.27 0 4.54
Note that the volumes of gases at STP are proportional to their amounts, so either quantity can be
used directly in stoichiometric calculations.
Limiting reactants SL
Chemical reactions are often carried out in aqueous solutions, which are solutions where water
is the solvent. Aqueous solutions are easier to handle and mix than solids and gases. When
solving quantitative problems involving concentrations and volumes of solutions, you should
focus on the amounts, in mol, of the reacting substances and their mole ratios in the balanced
chemical equation.

Remember you can find

the amount of a
substance in a solution,
n, from the volume of
the solution, V, using
n=C x V, where C is the
molar concentration of
that substance in mol
dm−3 and V is the
volume.
Limiting reactants SL
Limiting reactants SL
The volumes of solutions and gases must never be added together. The densities of most gases
are approximately 1,000 times lower than those of aqueous solutions, so when a gas is absorbed
by a solution, the increase in the solution volume is negligible for most practical purposes.

The mole ratio techniques discussed in this topic are commonly used in titration calculations. In
an acid–base titration, an acid and a base react with each other to form salt and water. An acid–
base indicator is added to the reaction mixture to monitor the reaction progress. The indicator
changes colour when the neutralization is complete. The mole ratio is shown by the balanced
equation for this neutralization reaction. If the volumes of both acid and base solutions are
known, and the concentration of one of the reactants is also known, the unknown concentration
of the second reactant can be determined.
Limiting reactants SL
Lab experiment: the back titration of an eggshell SL

See book page 469

Reactivity 2.1.4: The reaction yield
Chemistry Guide Statements R2.1.4 SL SL

Reactivity 2.1.4 —The percentage yield is calculated from the ratio of experimental yield to
theoretical yield.

• Solve problems involving reacting quantities, limiting and excess reactants, theoretical,
experimental and percentage yields.
The reaction yield SL
In any chemical reaction, the total mass of the reaction products is equal to the total mass of the consumed
reactants. This principle, known as the law of conservation of mass, follows from atomic theory. Since atoms
cannot be created or destroyed, their total number and therefore mass cannot be affected by chemical changes.
When chemical reactions are carried out experimentally, the amounts of the reaction products are usually
lower than the theoretical amounts predicted by the equation. This can happen for many reasons,
including incomplete conversion of the reactants or simply because some product was lost during its isolation
and purification processes.

We can calculate the percentage yield, which is the ratio between the experimental and the theoretical
amounts of the product.

• the theoretical yield is the amount or mass of the product that could be obtained from a particular reaction
if the reaction went to completion and no product was lost.
• the experimental yield is the actual amount or mass of the product isolated from a particular laboratory
experiment. The experimental yield can be lower than or equal to the theoretical yield, but it can never
exceed it. The percentage yield, and theoretical and experimental yields of a reaction, are related as
follows
The reaction yield SL
Knowledge check SL
Calculate the theoretical and percentage yields of the reaction between 9.443g of alluminium and
7.945 dm3 (STP) of oxygen that produced 17.13 g of alluminium oxide, Al 2O3 (s).

Solution
The reaction yield SL

Since purification processes reduce the total yield, chemists often have to find a balance
between yield and purity. For example, most medical drugs must have a purity of 99% or even
higher, as any impurities could have unpredicted effects on the patient’s health. As a result, the
strict safety requirements reduce the yields and increase the prices of medical-grade products.

At the same time, the acceptable purity for many industrial and agricultural materials, such as
detergents and fertilizers, could be well below 50%, as long as the impurities do not compromise
the safety and intended use of the product.

The yields of chemical reactions are particularly important in the chemical industry, where the
loss of even a small percentage of the final product could mean a significant drop in product.
Low reaction yields increase the amount of waste, which needs to be disposed of safely or
reused. The development of highly efficient synthetic procedures with low environmental impact
is reflected in the concept of green chemistry, which is now adopted by the majority of
commercial and research organizations around the world.
Reactivity 2.1.5: Green chemistry
and atom economy
Chemistry Guide Statements R2.1.5 SL SL

Reactivity 2.1.5 — The atom economy is a measure of efficiency in green chemistry.

• Calculate the atom economy from the stoichiometry of a reaction.

• Include discussion of the inverse relationship • Structure 2.4, Reactivity 2.2—The atom
between atom economy and wastage in industrial economy and the percentage yield both give
processes. important information about the “efficiency” of
• The equation for calculation of the atom a chemical process. What other factors should
economy is given in the data booklet. be considered in this assessment?
Green chemistry SL
In traditional chemistry, the efficiency of a synthetic
procedure is measured in terms of the product yield and the
cost of raw materials. Many other factors, such as the
toxicity of reagents and solvents, energy consumption and
the amount of waste produced are often ignored.

A completely different approach, known as green

chemistry, takes into account the environmental impact
of the entire technological process Green chemistry
encourages scientists to minimize the use and generation of
hazardous chemicals when designing reactions that are
used in industrial processes.

Common practices of green chemistry include:

• aqueous or solvent-free reactions
• renewable starting materials
• mild reaction conditions
• efficient catalysis
• utilization of any by-products formed during the
synthesis
Green chemistry SL
The term “green chemistry” was
coined in 1991 by American chemists
Paul Anastas and John Warner, who
formulated 12 principles for their
approach to chemical technology.

These principles include the use of

non-hazardous chemicals and
solvents, reduction of energy
consumption and waste production:
“the best form of waste disposal is
not to create it in the rst place”.
Other principles include the use of
renewable materials and prevention
of accidents. The philosophy of
green chemistry has passed into
national and international laws,
which restrict the use of certain
chemical substances and promote
environmentally friendly
technologies.
Atom economy SL
Another key concept of green chemistry is the atom economy, which is a measure of the
efficiency of a reaction.

The atom economy is the ratio of the molar mass of the isolated target product to the combined
molar masses of all starting materials, catalysts and solvents used in the reaction:

• the atom economy of a solvent-free reaction A + B → C is equal to the experimental yield and
can potentially reach almost 100%.
• in the reaction A + B → C + D, where C is the target product, the atom economy will always
be significantly lower than 100% because the unwanted by-product D is formed.

The use of solvents and catalysts will further reduce the atom economy because their constituent
atoms do not form the target product and must be disposed of or recycled. Therefore, the atom
economy is inversely proportional to the percentage of waste generated in an industrial
process or laboratory experiment.
Atom economy SL
The cost of green chemistry SL
Green technologies vary in efficiency and in many cases involve expensive equipment, raw
materials and recycling facilities. However, these initial investments reduce the costs associated
with environmental remediation, waste management and energy consumption. Therefore, in the
long term, green chemistry is a commercially attractive and sustainable alternative to traditional
organic chemistry.

Increasing adoption of green industrial processes in developed countries has significantly

reduced the emissions of many hazardous chemicals, such as chlorinated solvents or greenhouse
gases. At the same time, some non-hazardous substances branded as “green” or “environmentally
friendly” still require toxic chemicals or large amounts of energy for their production. The
industrial use of natural products, such as plant oils and starch, takes up agricultural resources,
reduces biodiversity and increases the cost of food. This can lead to various ecological and social
issues.

Therefore, the “greenness” of a product must

be assessed using all direct and indirect
environmental implications of its entire life
cycle. This is one of the most controversial
problems in green chemistry!!