Skeletal System1 241

Skeletal System
Structure, Function & Malfunction

Functions of the
Skeletal System
1. Provides Support/structure for body
2. Mineral storage (e.g. Ca2+)
3. Energy storage (e.g. fats in yellow marrow)
4. Blood cell production (red marrow)
5. Protection of vital organs (e.g. heart & lungs
enclosed in rib cage)
6. Provides leverage (force of motion)
Overview
• All components are
connective tissues
(CT)
– Bones
– Cartilages
• Shock absorber
• minimize friction at
joints
• growth plates
– Ligaments
• Bind bone to bone
– Tendons
• Bind bone to muscle
Connective tissue
Specialized
Matrix cells
Extracellular
proteins e.g. Ground substance
collagen
Proteoglycan
(traps H20) &
H2O
minerals (Ca, P,
Mg, S)
Connective tissues of the
skeletal system
• Tendons & ligaments - mostly collagen fibers
(ligaments have relatively more elastin); tough,
withstand (tendon) or accommodate (ligament)
tensile forces
• Cartilage - Mostly collagen (some elastin in
elastic cartilage) and proteoglycans; tough, but
smooth, a bit spongy, and resilient
• Bones - collagen makes it flexible, and mineral
salts (Ca2+, P; hydroxyapatite crystals), make it
resistant to compression.
Tendon vs. ligament
Tendon
• Dense regular
collagenous
• Muscle to bone
Ligament
• Dense regular elastic
– still mostly collagen,
but elastic fibers as
well
• Bone to bone
Dense Regular: Collagenous
• Dense Regular: fibers parallel, tightly packed,

aligned with applied forces
– collagenous: All collagen; tendons (bone to muscle),
aponeuroses (tendinous sheets)
Dense Regular: Elastic
• Elastic: collagenous with lots of elastic fibers;

ligaments (bone to bone), vocal cords
– Permit some expansion without damage & regain shape
Dense Irregular
• Dense Irregular: interwoven mesh, no pattern, resists

applied forces from many directions
– Encircles bone (periosteum) & cartilage (perichondrium)
– Encapsulates kidneys, spleen, joints, beneath dermis
Fluid CT: Blood
Supportive CT: Cartilage & Bone
• Supportive CT: Bone
and Cartilage
– Cartilage: chondrocytes
& chondroitin sulfates
• Hyaline
• Elastic
• Fibro
Supporting CT: Cartilage
• Hyaline cartilage
– Most common; support (like bone), friction reduction
– closely packed (but not visible) collagen fibers
– E.g. ends of bones, larynx, trachea, nasal septum, epiphyseal
(growth) plates
• Elastic Cartilage
– Mostly elastic fibers; many chondrocytes
– Tolerates distortion, springs back into shape (rubberband)
– E.g. Ears, tip of nose, epiglottis
• Fibrocartilage
– Little ground substance; fewer chonrdrocytes; densely
interwoven collagen fibers
– Resist compression, absorb shock
– E.g. Intervertebral discs, meniscus, pubic symphysis
Supporting CT: Bone
• Bone = osseous CT
– Cells
• Osteocytes
• Osteoblasts
• Osteoclasts
– Matrix
• Very little ground
substance
• Hydroxyapatite (2/3)
• Collagen fibers (1/3)
– More later
Bone Classification
• Classified by:
– Shape
– Bone markings
– Internal arrangement
Bone Shapes
Flat Sutural
Long Irregular
Sesamoid Short
Flat bones
• Cranial bones
– Frontal, occipital, parietal,
nasal, vomer
• Thoracic cage & Girdles
– Scapula = pectoral
– Illium, ischium, pubis = pelvic
• Form via intramembranous
ossification
• Function = protect critical
organs – brain, lungs, heart,
reproductive
Flat Bones
• Ex: the parietal bone of the
skull
• sandwich of spongy bone
between 2 layers of
compact bone
Figure 6–2b
Irregular bones
• Vertebral
– Vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx
• Facial
– Temporal, sphenoid,
ethmoid, zygomatic, maxilla,
mandible, hyoid, palatine,
nasal conchae
• Function = Protect spinal
cord and special sensory
structures
Long bones
• Clavicle; limbs & digits
• Function = movement
Sesamoid bones
• Develop within tendon &
ligament in response to
stress & strain; post-
embryonic development
– Patella, pisiform (carpal), @
junction of metacarpal 1 &
phalange, and @ metatarsal
1 & phalange
By Alison Cassidy - Own work, CC BY-SA
3.0,
• Poor blood supply
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?
curid=7889628
Bone markings
Functions of the
Skeletal System
1. Provides Support/structure for body
2. Mineral storage (e.g. Ca2+)
3. Energy storage (e.g. fats in yellow marrow)
4. Blood cell production (red marrow)
5. Protection of vital organs (e.g. heart & lungs
enclosed in rib cage)
6. Provides leverage (force of motion)
Matrix = Minerals + Proteins
• 2/3 of bone matrix (by weight) is calcium
phosphate, Ca3(PO4)2
– calcium phosphate, Ca3(PO4)2 + calcium hydroxide,
Ca(OH)2 = hydroxyapatite, Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2
– Which adds other calcium salts and ions
• 1/3 of bone matrix is collagen fibers
• These two components make bone stronger and
more flexible that steel-reinforced concrete.
Bone Cells make all types of bone
• Only 2% of bone mass:
– Osteoprogenitor (mesenchymal) cells - produce
osteoblasts; fracture repair
– Osteoblasts - produce organic products of matrix
(collagen)
– Osteocytes - mature osteoblasts; maintain matrix;
stimulate deposition of hydroxyapatite; regulate
remodeling
– Osteoclasts - remove and recycle matrix by secreting
acid and enzymes (collagenase); derived from germ
cells
Bone Cell locations
• Bone is covered with living CT “membranes”:
– Periosteum: outer, circumferential layer; contains
osteoprogenitors & osteoblasts
– Endosteum: inner layer, within osteon of compact bone;
contains osteoprogenitors, osteoblasts; osteoclasts
– Matrix: contains osteocytes.
Internal Arrangement: Compact
bone
vs. spongy bone
Arrangement
Location
Functions
Structural types of Bone; most
whole bones have both
Compact Spongy
• Dense bone • Trabecular bone
• Solid layer of lamellar • Open latticework of struts
(layered, mostly concentric) of matrix; no osteons (no
matrix; osteons with a central canals)
central canal • Reticulate structural
• Parallel structural elements elements (trabeculae)
(osteons) withstand forces withstand forces from
from one direction multiple directions
• Vascular matrix, vessels • Avascular matrix; vessels
inside osteons outside of trabeculae
• Red or yellow marrow
outside of matrix
Anatomical regions of long bones
• Diaphysis: the shaft
– Thick layer of outer compact bone,
with thin layer of spongy bone
facing medullary cavity
• Epiphysis: Articulating features
at each end
– Thin layer of outer compact bone
with thick layer of spongy bone
throughout inside
• Metaphysis: neck
– growth plate, mesenchymal cells
Internal structure
Spongy (Cancellous) Bone
• NO osteons
• Matrix forms open
network of
trabeculae
• Trabeculae NOT
vascularized, but
empty spaces are
Spongy (Cancellous) Bone
Compact Bone
• Composed of osteons (haversian system): Basic
unit of mature compact bone
– Osteocytes arranged in concentric lamellae (layers)
– Each osteon surrounds a central canal containing
blood vessels (deliver nutrients [like what?]; remove
waste)
– Perforating canals connect neighboring osteons
• Circumferential lamellae surrounds all osteons
• Surrounded by periosteum (out) and endosteum
(in)
Compact Bone (x.s. & l.s.)
Compact Bone (x.s. & l.s.)
Arrangement
• Lamellae:
– layers of Ca2+ salts surrounding
osteocytes
– Osteocytes within lacunae
surrounding blood vessels
• Canaliculi:
– Little canals through which
osteocytes connect
• Periosteum:
– covers outer surface of bone
– outer fibrous + inner cellular layer
Red & Yellow Marrow
• Medullary cavity filled with red bone marrow:
– has blood vessels
– forms red blood cells (RBC)
– supplies nutrients to osteocytes
• As we age, yellow marrow replaces most red
marrow in distal bones:
– stores FAT
Homeostasis
• Bone maintenance, by osteocytes, and bone
recycling, by osteoclasts, must balance:
– If more breakdown than building, then bones
become weak
– Exercise induces osteocytes to build bone
• See article for more
Bone formation:
intramembranous vs.
endochondral ossification
Ossification
• Formation of bone by osteoblasts
• 2 main forms of ossification:

– intramembranous ossification
– endochondral ossification
Intramembranous Ossification
• AKA dermal ossification
– produces dermal bones such as cranial bones and
clavicle
• Forms bone within connective tissue
membranes
– Ex: bones of the skull
• 3 steps in intramembranous ossification
Intramembranous
Ossification
• Mesenchymal
osteoprogenitor cells
aggregate:
– differentiate into
osteoblasts (ossification
center)
– Osteoblasts secrete organic
matrix (what is that?)
– develop projections of
trabeculae
Intramembranous
Ossification:
• Blood vessels are surrounded
by osteoblasts
• Trabeculae connect:
– trap blood vessels inside bone
• Resulting spongy bone is
remodeled into:
– osteons of compact bone
– periosteum
– or marrow cavities
How do long bones form and
increase in length?
Endochondral Ossification
• Growth and ossification of long bones
• Begins with hyaline cartilage model
• Proceeds via expansion of cartilage matrix
(interstitial growth) and production of new
cartilage at outer surface (appositional
growth).
• Chondrocytes in the
center of hyaline
cartilage:
– enlarge
– form struts & calcify
– die, leaving cavities in
cartilage
• Blood vessels surround
edges of cartilage
• Fibroblasts and some
chondroblasts of
perichondrium become
osteoblasts:
– Produce layer of
superficial bone around
shaft
– Eventually becomes
compact bone
(appositional growth)
• Blood vessels enter the
cartilage:
– import fibroblasts that
differentiate into osteoblasts
– osteoblasts create spongy
bone at the primary
ossification center
Endochondral Ossification:
• Remodeling creates a
marrow cavity:
– bone replaces cartilage
at the metaphyses
• Capillaries and
osteoblasts enter the
epiphyses:
– create secondary
ossification centers
Endochondral Ossification:
• Epiphyses fill with
spongy bone:
– cartilage within joint
cavity is articular
cartilage
– cartilage at metaphysis
is epiphyseal cartilage
Bones Grow via E.O.
1. New cartilage
produced on
epiphyseal side of
plate
2. Chondrocytes mature
& enlarge
3. Matrix calcifies;
chondrocytes die
4. Cartilage on
diaphyseal side
replaced by bone
Mechanism of bone growth
• During puberty, ↑ sex
steroids (estrogen &
androgen) ↑ GH
secretion.
• GH ↑ chondrocyte
proliferation & osteoblast
activity -> bones lengthen
• At end of puberty, ↑
estrogen accelerates
epiphyseal fusion, by
reducing chondro-
progenitor cells and
chondrocyte activity*
Epiphyseal closure & Height
• Due to the high
estrogen:androgen
ratio in females during
puberty, epiphyseal
plates fuse sooner, and
stature is shorter
– Females: complete
fusion at 12 – 16 years
– Males: complete fusion
at 14 – 19 years.*
* Crowder & Austin, 2005

• Crowder, C and Austin D. Age ranges of epiphyseal fusion
in the distal tibia and fibula of contemporary males and
females. J Forensic Sci, 2005 Sep;50(5):1001-7.
• Nilsson, O., Weise, M., Landman, E. B., Meyers, J. L.,
Barnes, K. M., & Baron, J. (2014). Evidence that estrogen
hastens epiphyseal fusion and cessation of longitudinal
bone growth by irreversibly depleting the number of
resting zone progenitor cells in female
rabbits. Endocrinology, 155(8), 2892–2899.
doi:10.1210/en.2013-2175

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Skeletal System

Structure, Function & Malfunction

• Dense Regular: fibers parallel, tightly packed,

• Elastic: collagenous with lots of elastic fibers;

• Dense Irregular: interwoven mesh, no pattern, resists

• 2 main forms of ossification:

* Crowder & Austin, 2005

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