ETHICAL

STANDARDS
 ETHICS AND RESEARCH

ETHICS - refers to norms for conduct that distinguish between

acceptable and unacceptable behavior.
- refers to rules in making a distinction between right
and wrong such as the Golden Rule,
Hippocratic Oath, Ten Commandments and sayings
of Confucius
 …do good and do no harm…

What to do?
a) obtain informed consent from potential research participants
b) minimize the risk of harm to participants by protecting their
confidentiality
c) avoid using deceptive practices and give participants the right to
withdraw from your research
 Ethical concerns affect research.

Some examples of unethical practice related to research according to Fraenkel

and Wallen (2010):
a) Require a group of high school sophomores to sign a form in which they
agree to participate in a research study.
b) Ask first-graders sensitive questions without obtaining the consent of their
parents to question them.
c) Deletes data he/she collects that do not support his hypothesis.
These examples violate ethical practice.
 Why is there a need for ethics?

1. To promote the aims of research such as knowledge, truth and avoidance of

error.
2. To promote the values that are essential to collaborative work such as trust,
accountability, mutual respect and fairness.
3. To ensure that researchers can be held accountable to the public.
4. To promote a variety of other important moral and social values.
5. Helps to build public support for research.
 Rules in observing ethical standards according
to Resnik (2015):

 There is a need to conduct the research accurately and fairly.

 Report your findings with complete honesty.
 Do not misrepresent, mislead and/or intentionally misinterpret.
 Give appropriate credit when using other people's work.
 Overall, maintain research integrity.
 Rules in observing ethical standards according
to Resnik (2015):

Secure consent of the participant/s.

Maintain confidentiality of information that were gathered from
the participants.
Code number may be used instead of the participants' names, help
protect participants confidentiality.
 The Ethical Checks to Make Before Beginning
the Study

1. Is the proposed research sufficiently well designed to be of informational value?

2. Does the research pose any risks to participants such as physical or psychological harm by such
means as the use of deception, obtaining sensitive, personal information, or using minors or
others who cannot readily give consent as participants?

3. If risks are placed on participants, does the research adequately control those risks by including
such procedures as debriefing, removing or reducing risks of physical harm, guaranteeing through
the procedures that all information will be obtained anonymously or if that is not possible,
guaranteeing that it will remain confidential, and providing special safeguards for minors and
participants who may have impairments?
 The Ethical Checks to Make Before Beginning
the Study

4. Have I included a provision for obtaining informed consent from every

participant or, if participants cannot give it, from responsible people acting for the
benefit of the participant?

5. Have I included adequate feedback information, including a debriefing if

deception is used to be given to the participants at the completion of the study?

6. Do 1 accept my full responsibility for the ethical and safe treatment of all
participants by myself and all research assistants?
 - plans and procedures
for research that
include detailed
METHODOLOGY methods of data
collection and analysis.

- Research Design involves relevance and appropriateness of the design to a wide

range of topic under study and its purpose and objectives.
 - drives perspectives of the
researcher on the study
- The selection of a
Research Design research design is also
based on the nature of the
research problem or issue
being addressed, the
researchers' personal
experiences and the
audiences for the study.
 A sample, that is appropriate to the research question
and the theoretical aims of the study, and that provides
an adequate amount of data to fully analyze the topic
and answer the research questions, is needed.

METHODOLOGY

RESPONDENTS OF THE STUDY

METHODOLOGY

RESPONDENTS OF THE STUDY

 A population is a complete set of
people with a specialized set of
characteristics, and a sample is a
subset of the population.

SAMPLE – is a smaller set of cases a

researcher selects from a large group
and generalizes to the population.

METHODOLOGY
RESPONDENTS OF THE STUDY
 3 things to consider:

1. How much data is needed?

2. How will sample be selected?
3. How will participants be accessed?

METHODOLOGY RESPONDENTS OF THE

STUDY
Why do sampling?

 The primary goal of sampling is to get a representative sample, or a

small collection of units or cases from a much larger collection or
population, such that the researcher can study the smaller group and
produce accurate generalizations about the larger groups.
(Neuman, 2007).
Sampling Methodologies

 Sampling methodologies or procedures can be classified under two general

categories: probability sampling and non-probability sampling.
Non-Probability Sampling

 Non-probability sampling is a sampling method in which not

all members of the population have an equal chance of
participating in the study.

 Non-probability sampling is defined as a sampling technique in

which the researcher selects samples based on the subjective
judgment of the researcher rather than random selection.
Each member of the population has a known chance of being
selected.
source: questionpro.com
 CONVENIENCE SAMPLING

 samples are selected from the population

only because they are conveniently
available to the researcher
 Researchers choose these samples just
because they are easy to recruit
 the most common non-probability sampling
method, because of its speed, cost-
effectiveness, and ease of availability of source: questionpro.com
the sample.
 CONSECUTIVE SAMPLING

 This non-probability sampling method is very

similar to convenience sampling
 Here, the researcher picks a single person or a
group of a sample, conducts research over a period,
analyzes the results, and then moves on to another
subject or group if needed.
source: questionpro.com
 SNOWBALL SAMPLING

 helps researchers find a sample when they

are difficult to locate
 when sample size is small and not easily
available
 works like the referral program, also called
snowballing or friendship pyramiding
source: questionpro.com
 SNOWBALL SAMPLING

 based on an analogy of a snowball, which

begins small but becomes larger as it is
rolled on wet snow and picks up additional
snow.

source: questionpro.com
 QUOTA SAMPLING

This type samples a population that has

been subdivided into classes or categories.

An example of quota sample would be a

survey in which the researcher desires to
obtain a certain number of respondents
based on age category.

Source: voxco.com
 JUDGMENTAL OR PURPOSIVE SAMPLING

- Researchers select the samples based purely on the researcher’s knowledge

and credibility.
- In other words, researchers choose only those people who they deem fit to
participate in the research study.
- Preconceived notions of a researcher can influence the results.

source: questionpro.com
Probability Sampling

Simple Random Sampling

Stratified Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Systematic Sampling
 Simple Random Sampling

To conduct this kind of sampling procedure, the researcher must have a list
of all members of the population of interest.

From this list, the sample is drawn so that each person has an equal chance
of being drawn.

To avoid researcher bias, computerized sampling programs or random

number tables may be used.
 Stratified Sampling

- involves categorizing the members of the population into mutually

exclusive and collectively exhaustive groups.

- ensures that subgroups (strata) of a given population are each adequately

represented within the whole sample population of a research study
 Stratified Sampling

Example: determining the average income earned by vendors in a city.

To obtain more precise estimates, the researcher may stratify the samples by
barangays.

Example: one might divide a sample of adults into subgroups by age, like
18–29, 30–39, 40–49, 50–59, and 60 and above
 Cluster Sampling

- a probability sampling technique where researchers divide the population into

multiple groups (clusters) for research

- The groups are defined in order to maintain the heterogeneity of the population.

- Clusters are representative samples of the population as a whole.

 Cluster Sampling

Example:
An NGO wants to create a sample of girls across five
neighboring towns to provide education.

The NGO randomly selects towns (clusters) to form a sample and

extend help to the girls deprived of education in those towns.
 Systematic Sampling

The researcher selects every nth member after randomly selecting the first, through nth
element as starting point.

For example, a survey of tourists entering a top tourist destination in a country could be
conducted by sampling every 10th visitor.

Example: Lucas can give a survey to every fourth customer that comes in to the movie
theater.
 SOURCES OF DATA

CHECKLISTS
 structure a person's observation or evaluation of a performance or artifact
 can be simple lists of criteria that can be marked as present or absent, or can provide
space for observer's comments
 These tools can provide consistency over time or between observers
 Checklists can be used to evaluating databases, virtual Instant Messaging (IM)
service, the use of librany space, or for structuring peer observations of instruction
sessions.
 SOURCES OF DATA

INTERVIEWS
 in-depth interviews include both individual interviews (e.g., one-on-one), as well as
"group" interviews (including focus group)
 stenography, audio recording, video recording or written notes
 In depth interviews differ from direct observation primarily in the nature of the
interaction. In interviews, it is assumed that there is a questioner and one or more
interviewees.
 The purpose of the interview is to probe the ideas d the interviewees about the
phenomenon of interest.
 SOURCES OF DATA

OBSERVATION

Sometimes, the best way to collect data is through observation.

This can be done directly or indirectly with the subject knowing or not knowing that
you are observing him/her.
You may choose to collect data through continuous observation via set time periods
depending on your project.
 SOURCES OF DATA

SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRES
Surveys questionnaires are instruments used for collecting data in survey
research.
They usually include a set of standardized questions that explore a specific
topic and collect information about demographics, opinions (called
opinionnaires), attitudes, or behaviors.
 SOURCES OF DATA

NARRATIVES
Narratives are transcribed testaments and transmittal regarding stories about individuals'
lives decoded through oral and written form.
The information is then, retold or restoried by the researcher into a narrative chronology.
In the classroom setting, the students' write-ups can be a source for narrative analysis, or
at times their journal entries and/or transmitted recorded discussions.
 SOURCES OF DATA

PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES AND DOODLE

These are graphical sketches or drawings that depict or portray meaning and
significance that reflect one's emotion, life situation, feeling and/or behavioral instinct,
issue and concerns.
However, resorting to this tool would entail the services of professionals, such as
psychometrician for the interpretation of these sketches to make findings and
conclusions valid, reliable and risk or trouble free.
 SOURCES OF DATA

TESTS
These are highly quantitative tools that bring about more reliable resuits because tests
entail scores and corresponding interpretations.
There are two types of test, namely: the standardized and researcher-made.
Standardized tests are those that already underwent process of pilot testing, validation
and reliability check although, at times the context is put into question, specifically on
issues on validity and relevance.
These can be categorized as intelligence test, mental test, personality test, emotional
quotient or affective test, aptitude test, ability test, vocational test, etc.
 SOURCES OF DATA

TESTS
Researcher-made tests are those prepared by the researcher himself/herself, making it appropriate and relevant to
answer questions posed in the study.
It may be high in reliability due to their very contextualized nature, however, its validity may be at stake.
In that regard, the test has to be put into validation process through pilot-testing, retesting and/or item analysis
procedures.
 SOURCES OF DATA

TESTS
Tests can be administered through print or online.
Traditional are those written tests composed of various test types along with test construction procedures,
principles and standards.
Online or electronic tests are those taken with the advent of technology or interactive electronic platforms.
These are more convenient and easy to administer, interpret and analyze, especially that some systems
already embed automatic recording, assessment, interpretation and analysis.
 SOURCES OF DATA

TESTS
Tests can be administered through print or online. Traditional are those written tests composed of various test types
along with test construction procedures, principles and standards. Online or electronic tests are those taken with the
advent of technology or interactive electronic platforms. These are more convenient and easy to administer, interpret
and analyze, especially that some systems already embed automatic recording, assessment, interpretation and
analysis.
 SOURCES OF DATA

AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT
These are forms of assessment that go beyond measuring knowledge.
They measure instead, the demonstrated skills and competencies.
These may be in the form of performance, task, output, project, oral,
presentation, reporting etc. In so doing, this tool is a data-gathering source.
 SOURCES OF DATA

AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT
Standard rubrics, whether holistic or analytic, need to be prepared relevant
to the skill and competency to be assessed.
For more balanced and reliability of results, the rubrics must be utilized by
more than one person in assessing the skills or competencies.
 SOURCES OF DATA

ANECDOTAL RECORDS
These are written descriptive, longitudinal accounts of what an individual,
says or does in particular concrete situations over a period of time.
Accurate description is emphasized until a clear picture appropriate for
explanation and interpretation is developed.
 SOURCES OF DATA

FIELD NOTES
These are similar to anecdotal records except that they include simple
impressions and interpretations.
Descriptions may include reference to better lessons, petty squabbling, or
inconsiderate behavior that has been observed.
 SOURCES OF DATA

DIARIES
These are personal accounts on a regular basis around topics of interest or
concern.
The entries may range from accounts of work to self-monitoring of a
change in teaching method.
 SOURCES OF DATA

PORTFOLIO
This is a collection of materials compiled for a purpose.
The portfolio may contain things like minutes of staff meetings relevant to
the history of the issues under review, correspondence related to the
progress and behavior of a student, newspaper clippings and report on
critical incidents, creative and academic works related to the area of
concern.
DATA GATHERING
PROCEDURE
DATA GATHERING
PROCEDURE
 DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURE
Generic Steps in Data Analysis by Cresswell (1998)

Organize and prepare the data for analysis. This involves

transcribing interviews, optically scanning material, typing
up field notes, or sorting and arranging the data into
different types, depending on the sources of information.

Read through all the data. Obtain a general sense of the

information and reflect on its over-all meaning: What
general ideas are participants saying? What is the tone of the
ideas? At times, the qualitative researcher writes marginal
notes or starts recording general thoughts about the data at
this stage.
 DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURE
Generic Steps in Data Analysis by Cresswell (1998)

Begin detailed analysis with coding process. Rossman and Rollis

(1998) define coding as the process of organizing material into
"chunks" before bringing meaning to those "chunks". It involves
taking text data or pictures, segmenting sentences (or paragraphs)
or images into categories, and labeling those categories with a
term, often a term based on the actual language of the participant
(called an invivo term).
 DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURE
Generic Steps in Data Analysis by Cresswell (1998)

Use the coding process to generate a description of the setting or people as well as categories
or themes for analysis. Description involves a detailed rendering of information about
people, places or events in a setting. This analysis is useful in designing detailed descriptions
for case studies, ethnographies, and narrative research projects. Then, use the coding to
generate a small number of themes or categories- about five to seven categories. These themes
are the ones that appear as major findings in qualitative studies and are stated under
separate headings in the findings section of the study.

Decide how the description and themes will be represented. One approach is to use a narrative
passage to convey the finding of the analysis and detailed discussion of themes and sub-
themes or interconnecting themes. The following are used by qualitative researchers as
adjuncts to the discussion; visuals, figures or tables. They present a process model (as in
grounded theory) a drawing of the specific research site (as in ethnography) or they convey
descriptive information about each participant in a table (as in case studies and
ethnographies).
 DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURE

the researcher's personal

interpretations, expressed in the
individual understanding that the
researcher brings to the study from
his/her own culture, history and
A final step in data analysis experiences.
involves making an interpretation
of data, that is, what Lincoln and
Guba (1985) call "lessons
suggestions for new questions
learned” a meaning derived from a
that need to be asked-
comparison of the findings with
information gleaned from the questions the researcher had
literature or extant theories. not foreseen earlier in the
study.
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