SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

When conducting a study about a group of people, researchers often do not have enough resources
to gather and collect data from each individuals in that group. For instance, if a researcher is
interested to know about the experiences of senior high school Filipino students, his resources would
most likely not allow him to get data from all senior high school students who are Filipino. It simply is
impossible as it would take a lot of time and resources on the part of a researcher. To solve this
dilemma, researchers may select samples from their population through sampling.

Sampling is a term in research that refers to the process of selecting samples from a population so
that the samples may represent the population in general. 
o For instance, in the situation provided above: If a researcher is interested in studying senior
high school Filipino students, but it is simply impossible to do so, the researcher may select
only a few individuals to actually partake in the research.

Population is the entire group (of people or objects) that you want to study in a research. They are a
complete set of persons or objects that have the same characteristics defined by the criteria set by
the researcher. 

Samples, on the other hand, are the actual group of persons or objects from which data will be
collected. They are the selected individuals to participate in a research, usually referred to
as respondents, participants or subjects.

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
1. PROBABILITY SAMPLING - includes techniques that provides all members in a population equal
chances of getting selected. This type involves random selection of participants.
o Simple random sampling – every item in a population has equal chance of getting selected;
may include the use of tools such as randomized number or name picker, draw lots,
spinwheel, etc 
o Systematic sampling – every nth (n=number) person in the population is selected (e.g. every
9th person in an alphabetical list)
o Stratified sampling – population is divided into subgroups then random samples are selected
from each group (e.g.: senior high school students are divided into strands, then 5 person per
strand is collected).

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 o Cluster sampling – population is divided into subgroups then random subgroups are selected
from the population (e.g.: senior high school students are divided into 4 strands, then all
members of 2 strands are selected).

2. NON-PROBALITY SAMPLING - does not involve random techniques in sampling; samples are
chosen based on a predetermined criteria.
o Purposive sampling - also called judgment sampling, the researcher's own set criteria or
expertise is the basis for selecting samples.
o Convenience sampling - samples are whoever is available and accessible for the
researcher.
o Snowball sampling - a researcher starts with a few samples only. The first set of samples
each recommend or recruit other participants.
o Quota sampling - the
researcher sets a
target number of
participants per
group.

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 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
Crucial in research is the data collection and analysis stage because this is the phase in which the
goals for your research is fulfilled. This is the stage in which the researcher gathers the needed data
to answer the research question. This is a vital stage because in research, data can tell a story.

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

1. Observation - Researchers use their senses to get a first-hand examination of what is actually
happening in the field that they are researching about. Usually, this involves the use of video and
audio recorders, field notes or checklists which are used to record the observations seen by the
researchers.
o Participant observation
o Non-participant observation
o Covert
o Structured
o Unstructured

2. Interview - In-depth interview is one of the most used data collection technique in qualitative
research as it provides researchers with straightforward approaches in getting rich and detailed data
regarding a specific phenomenon. It involves a researcher asking questions to elicit responses from
the subjects. Thus, interview is especially helpful if the researcher aims to gather thoughts, opinions,
experiences, and feelings from the participants. To do this, video and audio recorders are often
used to tape the interview session. Then, transcriptions of the interviews are prepared.
o Unstructured
o Structured
o Semi-structured

3. Focus Group Discussion (FGD) - In an FGD, a researcher facilitates a discussion among a

number of participants about issues related to the research questions. Prior to data collection, the
researchers prepare a set of discussion points which a group of 6-12 participants would have to
express their views on. Similar to interviews, video and audio recorders are also used to record the
discussions. Then, transcriptions of the discussions are prepared.

4. Survey / questionnaires - While this method is more useful for quantitative research, some
researchers also design surveys and questionnaires for qualitative studies. For this, researchers
prepare open-ended questions which the respondents have to answer in long typed or written
answers. 
Some key points to remember:
o When deciding on which method to use, practicality is a must.
o The techniques that provide the most useful and appropriate data must be used. 
o As a researcher, you are only limited by your own imagination and the issues of
validity when designing your data collection methods.

METHODS OF DATA ANALYSIS

1. Statistical Tests - While this method is more useful for quantitative research, simple mathematical
processes can also be utilized for qualitative studies.
o Descriptive Statistics 
o Inferential Statistics

2. Data Coding and Thematic Analysis - This involves building taxonomies, categories or
classifications within your data. This is useful for working with textual data.

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 RESEARCH ETHICS
Generally, ethics refer to someone's moral principles (or the knowledge of what is right and wrong)
when engaging in certain activities. In every aspect of the research process, several ethical issues
may arise.

With this in mind, ponder on the questions below. 

1. What are the potential harms that may arise when you conduct your research?
2. What standards would you set for yourself as a researcher to ensure that your study is
ethically and morally done?
3. What do you think will happen in the world without research ethics?

When conducting a research, the researchers present himself or herself as a member of the
academe and a professional. Thus, certain principles of research ethics must be taken into
consideration.

1. Harm. The rule here is very simple: Do no harm. In research, potential harms might arise as the
study is being conducted. Thus, researchers must always reflect on what the possible risks are and
find ways to avoid or circumvent these. Remember, do no harm... or at least, try to ensure that the
benefits are greater than the risks.

2. Integrity. One basic concept in research ethics is integrity. In plain language, it means doing the
right thing even if no one is watching. From a research perspective, integrity means that the study is
conducted honestly and truthfully so that the readers can trust that it was carried out the way it is
reported on paper. 

3. Plagiarism. Another very basic rule: Do not plagiarize.

4. Validity. Logical, truthful, robust, sound, reasonable, meaningful, and useful - These are just some
evidences that make for a valid research. To achieve this, the researcher must use the right tools,
undergo a systematic process and gather valid data for the study.

5. Power. They say, "Knowledge is power." Thus, research is power. Considering oneself as a

researcher already gives you a certain power over your community since you and your study might
have great impact on the society. This power presents ethical issues, so the researcher must see to it
that it is used well and that the impact of his / her research to the community is a positive one . It must
also be certain that the research do not oppress the powerless.

6. Transparency. Openness and transparency in research are tested ways to ensure ethicality of a

study. This means that the researcher must openly and honestly communicate his research to
everyone involved: the research adviser, the participants and the panelists.

7. Confidentiality and anonymity. These two concepts are related to data privacy. Confidentiality
means that the researcher must ensure that the contributions of the participants remain undisclosed
to the public. Anonymity, on the other hand, refers to the practice of keeping the participants
unidentifiable in any way. 

8. Informed consent. Related to transparency, informed consent involves the researcher

communicating to the potential participants everything about the research: its nature, extent, possible
consequences. Then, the participants reserve the right to engage in the research with his consent or
withdraw from it. This is done by signing a consent form.

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 CREATING A RESEARCH SPACE (WRITING THE RESEARCH INTRODUCTION)
Similar with any other academic papers, a research introduction may determine how the entire paper
is comprehended and accepted by the readers. While writing an effective introduction should be the
goal of any researcher, one question still remains: How do I write my research introduction?

Based on an analysis of several research articles, linguist John Swales developed the CARS model
which attempts to provides a description of how research introductions are written and organized.
The CARS model is an acronym that stands for Creating A Research Space (CARS). Because
research is a very competitive arena, this model provides researchers and writers to effectively create
and organize the introduction of their research papers so that it can "compete" with other research
papers in terms of territory and engage its readers into that territory.

Therefore, following the CARS model whenever you need to write your research introduction will help
you create a competitive, clear and strong one. To do this, there are three moves that you have to
follow:

Move 1: ESTABLISHING YOUR TERRITORY (The situation)

 To begin your introduction, you must be able to describe why the general area of your
research is relevant, important, useful or worthy to be investigated scientifically.
 How do you do that?
o You must explicitly mention the relevance of your topic by explaining its importance
within your research context. 
o You must also provide statements about the current knowledge or practices that is
already available on that particular topic. (This is where you define terms or keywords in
your research).
o You must provide a single paragraph summary of the literature available on that topic.

Move 2: ESTABLISHING A NICHE

 Once you have already established your territory, it is now time to establish the niche by
identifying a gap in previous researches. This is the stage in which you actually create a
research space.
 In doing so, you may answer the following questions.
o What aspects in previous researches still need further investigation?
o What areas in previous researches seem to be incomplete or lacking?
o What weaknesses or opposing viewpoints can be pointed out?

Move 3: OCCUPYING THE NICHE

 Now that you have already pointed out the gaps in research, you can now present to your
readers your own research by explaining how it will contribute to fill in the gap or extend
previous investigations done on your topic.
 How do you do that?
o You can outline your research objectives (your RQs but in statement form, rather that
questions).
o You can announce your research (by answering the WHs).
o You can announce major findings.
o You can indicate the structure of your paper.
Note: You can refer to the other file for keywords that you can use in each move.

http://www.cs.tut.fi/kurssit/SGN-16006/academic_writing/cars_model_handout.pdf