APPLICATION OF TIME

SYSTEMS (1)
Cory Smith, PS, EIT, MSCE
 ■ WHY MAKE ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR
AZIMUTH?

Astronomic
– Assumed North is based on the existence of two monumented
locations.
– Magnetic North is defined by the pull of the earth’s magnetic

Observations for –
forces.
Geodetic North is defined by the mean rotational axis of the earth.

Azimuth –
–
Grid North is a based upon a map projection system.
Astronomical (Celestial) North is north based upon a projection of
the earth’s polar axis onto a celestial sphere.
Historical Methods of
Determining the Azimuth
■ The determination of the azimuth of a line using
astronomical observations was nothing new to the
ancients.
– In fact, two relatively simple procedures can
be used to get the approximate azimuth of a
line which do not require the knowledge of
any mathematics.
■ These methods are known as the shadow
method and the equal-altitude method.
ACCURATE METHODS OF AZIMUTH DETERMINATION
BASIC
DEFINITIONS
■ Before proceeding any further with this
development, it is first necessary to define
specific terms used in astronomy:
– Upper culmination is the highest
point of a star’s apparent rotation
in the sky.
– Lower culmination is the lowest
point of a star’s apparent rotation
in the sky.
– Western elongation is the
westernmost point of a star’s
apparent rotation in the sky.
– Eastern elongation is the
easternmost point of a star’s
apparent rotation in the sky.
 BASIC
DEFINITIONS
SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAE

■ Law of Sines:
– Eq 2
■ The Cosine Law for Sides:
– Eq. 3
 DERIVATION
■
■
Eq. 4
Recalling the trigonometric relationship that cos(a) = sin(90-a),
OF HOUR-
Equation (4) yields:
– Eq. 5
ANGLE
■ Rearranging Equation (5) to isolate z, gives FORMULA
– Eq. 6
 DERIVATION OF HOUR-ANGLE
FORMULA
– Eq. 7
■ Since the cos(a) = sin(90-a), Equation (7) yields:
– Eq. 8
■ Dividing Equation (8) by Equation (6), gives:
– Eq. 9
■ Similarly using Equation (3) and Figure 7, the following equation can be rewritten:
– Eq. 10
DERIVATION OF HOUR-ANGLE
FORMULA
■ Substituting the equivalent sines and cosines for their complimentary counterparts in Equation
(10) yields:
– Eq. 11
■ Substituting Equation (11) into Equation (9), gives:
– Eq. 12
■ After multiplying both the numerator and denominator of Equation (12) by and regrouping:
– Eq. 13
■ However, and thus Equation (13) can be rewritten as:

–  Hour-Angle Formula  Eq. 14

 DERIVATION OF HOUR-ANGLE FORMULA
■ Since the Sine of an angle between 90°E and 270°E is negative, thus the LHA can be
substituted into the Equation (14) for the t angle as:

– Modified Hour-Angle Formula:

– Eq. 15

■ Relationship between LHA and azimuth of star:

When LHA is If z>0 If z<0

0° to 180° Az = 180°+ z Az = 360°+ z
180° to 360° Az = z Az = 180°+z
 SPECIAL EQUIPMENT

■ Precise observational time is required for any celestial observation.

– Since only the top of each minute is noted during the broadcast time, the surveyor must additionally
have a stopwatch with lap mode capabilities.
■ To observe stars, a theodolite must be equipped with a special night illumination package.
– Any instrument with a short scope, a special right angle prism, eyepiece can be purchased to aid the
observer in viewing high altitude objects.
■ Solar observations require some form of eye protection to avoid damage caused by direct viewing of the
sun's rays.
– Viewing the sun without special filters, even for a brief moment, will cause permanent eye damage
and possibly blindness.
– ALWAYS MAKE SAFETY YOUR FIRST CONCERN WHEN VIEWING THE SUN. ALWAYS
DOUBLE CHECK FOR THE PRESENCE OF THE SOLAR FILTER BEFORE VIEWING
WITH THE INTRUMENT.
 METHODS OF OBSERVING A
CELESTIAL OBJECT FOR AZIMUTH
■ WHAT’S IN A CELESTIAL OBSERVATION?
– Mechanics of obtaining the proper measurements.
– The reduction the observed quantities for azimuth.
■ While the mechanics of observing the Sun or a star such as Polaris differ, there a several items
which are the same.
 METHODS OF OBSERVING A
CELESTIAL OBJECT FOR AZIMUTH
■ The reduction of a celestial observation involves obtaining a horizontal angle from a ground reference mark
to the celestial object at a known time
 METHODS OF OBSERVING A
CELESTIAL OBJECT FOR AZIMUTH
1. Set the stopwatch into elapsed time mode and start the watch at the top of a minute.
2. Record the minute and the DUT correction at the time the stopwatch is started.
1. For the DUT correction,
1. Add to the UTC time for each double click heard in seconds 1 through 7.
2. Subtract to the UTC time for each double click heard in seconds 9 through 15.
3. Compute the UT1 time as:
4. UT1 = UTC + DUT Eq. 16
5. Record the elapsed time interval and horizontal angle for each celestial observation.
 METHODS
OF
OBSERVING
A CELESTIAL
OBJECT FOR
AZIMUTH
 METHODS OF OBSERVING A
CELESTIAL OBJECT FOR AZIMUTH
1) Backsight to the reference station target with the scope direct and record the horizontal circle
reading.
2) Point at the star or sun, obtain the elapsed time, record both the time of observation and the
horizontal circle reading.
3) Repeat step 2 for a total of 3 pointings.
4) Plunge the scope to its reverse position.
5) Point on the star or sun, obtain the elapsed time, record both the time of observation and the
horizontal circle reading. (Hint: Set 180° plus the previous horizontal angle to on the circle to
quickly return to the proper star.)
6) Repeat step 5 for a total of 3 pointings.
7) Sight the reference station target, and record the horizontal circle reading
 Getting Latitude and Longitude

■ In order to use Equation (16) in the reduction of celestial observations for azimuth, the
value of the station’s geodetic coordinates (latitude, φ, and longitude, λ) must be
determined.
■ Values can be obtained from the State Plane Coordinates (SPC) of the station.
– The more likely situation is that these values are not known.
■ The station must be located on a USGS 7½-minute better quadrangle (quad) map.
– An engineer’s scale can be used to obtain approximate geodetic coordinates for the station.
■ Locate the grid tick marks that contain the point of interest. Connect these marks with a sharp pencil.
■ To determine the latitude of the station, place the 0 mark of the 20's scale so that it goes from the
bottom edge of the rectangle through the point to the rectangle's top edge. Read and record the
distance from the bottom edge of the rectangle to the point and the top edge of the rectangle. Linearly
interpolate the number of seconds of latitude from the bottom edge of the rectangle to the station.
 ■ For example, suppose the reading in Figure 13(a) to the station is 83.6, and
the reading to the top side of the rectangle is 151.5. If the bottom edge of the
box has the latitude of 41° 17' 30“, then the station’s latitude to the nearest
second is:

Getting ■ Note in the above equation that there are 150" (2½’) of latitude from the

Latitude and
bottom edge of the rectangle to the top edge.

Longitude
 ■ The longitude of the station can be read directly off the scale. To do this, place the
scale’s 0 mark on the right edge of the rectangle, and the 150 mark on the left edge of
the rectangle. Slide the scale up or down as is needed until the station is on the scale
as shown in Figure 13(b). Take a scale reading at the station and add this reading to
the longitude for the right edge of the rectangle. For example, assume the right edge

Getting of the rectangle represents the 77° 15' 00" longitude, and thescale reads 104 at the
station. Then the longitude of the station is:1

Latitude and –

Longitude
 REDUCING CELESTIAL OBSERVATIONS FOR
AZIMUTH

■ The reduction of an astronomical observation for azimuth consists of a set of computations, and
readily lend themselves to a computation sheet or computation software.
■ Declination for Polaris, the declination is determined using the formula:
– Eq. 17a
■ declination of Polaris at time of observation
■ the tabulated value for the declination of Polaris at 0 hours on UT1 on the day of the
observation
■ the tabulated value for the declination of Polaris at 0 hours on UT1 on the day
following the observation
■ UT1 = Univeral Time as given by Equation 16
 REDUCING CELESTIAL OBSERVATIONS FOR
AZIMUTH

■ Declination for the sun, the declination is determined using the formula:
– Eq. 17b
■ declination of the sun at time of observation.
■ the tabulated value for the declination of Polaris at 0 hours on UT1 on the day of the
observation.
■ the tabulated value for the declination of Polaris at 0 hours on UT1 on the day
following the observation.
■ UT1 = Universal Time as given by Equation 16.
 REDUCING CELESTIAL OBSERVATIONS FOR
AZIMUTH

■ Due to the revolution of the earth each day, 360° must be added to the tabulated value for the
GHA at 24 hours (GHA24). Thus, the formula for the GHA of the sun or star is:
– Eq. 18
■ Greewich Hour Angle to the star or sun at the time of the observation.
■ tabulated value for the Greewich Hour Angle to the star or sun at 0 hours UT1 on the
day of the observation.
■ tabulated value for the Greewich Hour Angle to the star or sun at 0 hours UT1 on the
day immediately following the day of the observation.
■ UT1 = Universal Time as given by Equation 16.
■ *** In the western hemisphere of the earth, the LHA to the sun or star is given by:***
h=sin
−1
[ sin ( 𝜑 ) sin ( 𝜹֍ ) + cos ( 𝜑 ) cos ( 𝜹֍ ) cos ( 𝑳𝑯𝑨⋆ ) ]

REDUCING
CELESTIAL
OBSERVATIONS
FOR AZIMUTH
EXAMPLE OF REDUCTION SHEET FOR POLARIS
OBSERVATIONS
 ERRORS IN
CELESTIAL
OBSERVATIONS
𝜀= 𝑓 𝑑 𝜇 tan h

h=𝑡h𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

𝜀=𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡h𝑒 h𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒
 References

■ All information, formulas, calculations, charts, figures, and other material in this
presentation have been sourced from the following publication:
■ (1) Ghilani, C. D., Astronomical Observations for Azimuth, 1 st Ed., retrieved from
http://www.personal.psu.edu/cdg3/Astro%20Azimuth%20Handbook.pdf, 02/01/2022.