Analytical Chemistry

lectures
Autum 2022
DR.AMINA AMIMN
INTRODUCTION IN ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
•“Analytical chemistry is a measurement science consisting of
a set of powerful ideas and methods that are useful in all fields
of science and medicine.”
These examples demonstrate that both qualitative and
quantitative information are required in an analysis.
1. Qualitative Analysis – reveals chemical identity of elements
and compounds in a sample.
2. Quantitative Analysis – determines the relative amounts of
each substance in a sample.
3. Analytes – components of a sample that are to be
determined.

Analytical chemists use a number of experimental techniques

to

Define their molecular formulas.

Determine their concentrations and
Separate different chemical species,
1.A The Role of Analytical Chemistry

• Analytical chemists use science and technology to solve practical

• problems.
•Analytical chemistry is applied in all areas of science, industry, and
medicine.
• The concentrations of O2 and of CO2 in blood samples.
• Quantities of hydrocarbons, NOx, and CO in automobile exhaust gases
for emission-control devices.
• Quantitative measurements of ionized Ca in blood serum help diagnose
parathyroid disease in humans.
• Quantitative determination of N in foods: protein content and thus their
nutritional value.
• Analysis of steel during its production for carbon, nickel, and
chromium to achieve a desired strength, hardness, corrosion resistance,
and ductility.
• The mercaptan content of household gas supplies to warn of
dangerous leaks.
• Farmers tailor fertilization and irrigation schedules to meet changing
plant needs during the growing.
• Chemistry: The Central Science; all sub-disciplines rely on analytical
chemistry to function
• The interdisciplinary nature of chemical analysis
makes it a vital tool in medical, industrial, government,
and academic laboratories throughout the world.
 Areas of Chemical Analysis and Questions They Answer
:Quantitation
? How much of substance X is in the sample
:Detection
Dose the sample contain substance X ?
:Identification
What is the identity of the substance in the sample?
:Separation
How can the species of interest be separated from the
matrix for better quantitation and identification?
1B- Quantitative Analytical Methods
• Four general areas of analytical methods:
1. Gravimetric methods: determine the mass of analyte or some
compound chemically related to it.
2. Volumetric methods use the volume of a solution containing
sufficient reagent to react with the analyte.
3. Electroanalytical methods measure electrical properties (potential,
current, resistance) to find composition of samples.
4. Spectroscopic methods based on interaction of electromagnetic
radiation with analyte atoms & molecules, or on the production of
radiation by analytes.
1C A Typical Quantitative Analysis
1C-1 Choosing a Method: The choice is
sometimes difficult and requires experience
as well as intuition. - level of
accuracy :investment on time and money -
Number of samples analyzed and number of
components in the sample
1C-2 Acquiring the Sample:
- ananalysis must be performed on a
sample that has the same composition as
the bulk of material from which it was
taken. When the bulk is large and
heterogeneous, great effort is required to
get a representative sample.
- The collection of specimens from
biological sources represents a second type
of sampling problem.
1C-3 Processing the Sample:
- Preparing a Laboratory Sample: grounding, mixing, storing - Defining
Replicate Samples: Replicate samples, or replicates, are portions of a
material of approximately the same size that are carried through an
analytical procedure at the same time and in the same way.
- Preparing Solutions: Physical and Chemical Changes
- Converting the sample into a soluble form:acid-base addition, ignition,
high temperature fusion.
- converting the sample into a form suitable for the measurement step.
Mn→ MnO4 colored solution

1C-4 Eliminating Interferences: An interference or

interferent is a species that causes an error in an analysis by
enhancing or attenuating (making smaller) the quantity
being measured. The matrix, or sample matrix, is the
collection of all of the components in the sample containing
an analyte.
: 1C-5 Performing the Measurement
This implies conducting the analytical
.procedure and collecting the requiired data

1C-6 , 1C-7 Calculating and Evaluating Results

 1D Measurements in Analytical Chemistry
Analytical chemistry is a quantitative science. Whether
determining the concentration of a species, evaluating an
equilibrium constant, measuring a reaction rate, or drawing
a correlation between a compound’s structure and its
reactivity .
1D.1 Units of Measurement
These units are called SI units after the Système
International d’Unités.
 1D.2 Significant Figures

.
• 4. Zeroes between nonzero digits are significant e.g., 40.1m has 3
sig figs
• 5.Zeroes at the end of a number that contain a decimal point are
significant.
• e.g ., 41.0m has 3 sig figs,while 441.20m has 5.
• In scientific notation,these can be written respectively as
• 4.10 *10¹ and 4.4120 *10²
• 6. Zeroes at the end of a number that does not contain a decimal
point may or may not be significant. If we wish to indicate the
number of significant figures in such numbrs,it is common to use
the scientific notation.
 : Examples of significant figures
Determine the number of significant figures in the
:following measurements
1. 328 cm Answer: 3
2. 6.01 g Ans: 3
3. 0.805 m Ans: 3
4. 0.043 kg Ans:2
5. 1.510 x 10² atoms Ans: 4
6. 5000 mL Ans: 1
7. 5.0 x x 10² mL Ans:2
8. 5.000 x 10² mL Ans: 4
9. 0.030200 x 10⁴ mL Ans: 5
10.6.40 x 10² molecules Ans: 3
1E Concentration Of
Solutions
• There are three fundamental
ways of expressing solute concentration:
1. Molar concentration.
2. Percent concentration.
3. Solution-diluent volume ratio.
1E .1 .Molar Concentration
The molar concentration Cx of a solution of a solute species X is
the number of moles of that species that is contained in 1 liter of the
solution.In terms of the number of moles of solute,n, and the
volume,V ,of solution,we wtite
molar concentration (Cx ) =no.moles solute(nx)
volume in liters(V)
The unit of molar concentration is molar,symbolized by M
which has the dimensions of mol/L,or mol L⁻¹.Molar
concentration is also the number of millimoles of solute per
milliliter of solution.
1M = 1 mol L⁻¹ = 1mol = 1 mmol L⁻¹ = 1 mmol
L L
1E.2.Percent concentration(parts per
hundred)
There ara three common methods to express percent concentrati

Weight percent( w/w ) = weight solute x 100%

weight solution

Volume percent (v/v) = volume solute x 100%

volume solution

weight volume percent (w/v) = weight solute ,g x100%

volume solution ,mL

1E.2.Percent concentration(parts per
hundred)
Weight (w/w) percent is often used to express the concentration of
commercial aqueous reagents. For example ,nitric acid (HNO3) is
sold as a 70% (w/w) solution,meaning that the reagent contain 70 g
of HNO3 per 100 g of solution .
Volume (v/v) percent is commonly used to specify the concentration
of a solution prepared by diluting a pure liquid compound with
another liquid. For example , a 5% (v/v) aqueous solution of
methanol usually describes a solution prepared by diluting 5.0 mL of
pure methanol with enough water to give 100 mL.
Weight or volume percent is often used to indicate the composition
of dilute aqueous solutions of solid reagents.For example ,5% (w/v)
aqueous silver nitrate often refers to a solution prepared by
dissolving 5 g of silver nitrate in sufficient water to give 100 mL of
solution.
 1E.3.Parts per Million and Parts per Billion
For very dilute solutions, parts per million (ppm) is a
convenient
:way to express concentration
c mass of solute x 10⁶ ppm =
ppm
mass of solution
where cppm is the concentration in parts per million.The
units of mass in the numerator and denominator must
agree so that they cancel.1 ppm is one part by weight or
volume,of solute in 1 million parts by weight , or volume of
solution.
For even more dilute solutions, 10⁹ ppb rather than 10⁶
ppm is used in the previous equation to give the results in
.parts per billion (ppb)
 Cppb = mass of solute x 10⁹ ppb

mass of solution

.The term parts per thousand (ppt) is also used

 1 part per million (ppm) corresponds to = 1 mg /L =1 μg/
mL 1 part per billion(ppb) corresponds to = 1 μg/L=1
ng/mL
μg means microgram
ng means nanogram
 For gases ,ppm usually refers to volume rather than mass.
So 1 part per million (ppm) correspond to= 1mL/L = 1
μL/mL .
Making Solutions
: How many grams of NaCl would you need to prepare
1) 1L of 1M NaCl. 2) 400.0 mL of a 5 M
NaCl.
 Making Solutions
: How many grams of NaCl would you need to prepare

1) 1L of 1M NaCl.

2) 400.0 mL of a 5 M NaCl.
First, we need to determine the molar
mass( molecular weigth) of NaCl.
The molar mass of a compound can be
calculated by adding the molar mass
of the individual elements.
22.99+ 35.45= 58.44 g/mol
 Making Solutions
: How many grams of NaCl would you need to prepare
.1L of 1M NaCl )1
g = M X L X molar mass
g = (1 mol/L)(1.0L) (58.44g/moL)
g = 58.44 g
We usually dissolve the solid in about two -thirds volume
of water . So we dissolve 58.44g of NaCl in about 700 mL
of water and stir. When it is completely dissolved, we
transfer the solution to a volumetric flask and bring it to
the final volume of 1L.
Making Solutions
: How many grams of NaCl would you need to prepare
.mL of a 5 M NaCl 400.0 )2
g = M X L X molar mass
g = (5 mol/L)(0.4 L) (58.44g/moL)
g = 116.88 g
We usually dissolve the solid in about two -thirds volume
of water . So we dissolve 116.88 g of NaCl in about 300
mL of water and stir. When it is completely dissolved, we
transfer the solution to a volumetric flask and bring it to
the final volume of 400 mL.
1E.4.Diluting Solutions
C1 V1 = C2 V2
where C = concentration; V = volume

M1 V1 = M2 V2
where M = molarity

Cconc Vconc = Cdil Vdil

Where “conc” refers to the more concentrated solution
and “dil” refers to the more dilute solution. Note that
you can use any units you want for conc.and vol.as long
as they are the same on both sides of the equation.
Diluting Solutions
Problem : how to prepare a 500 mL of 0.750 M HCl
from12.0 M concentrated HCl?

Cconc Vconc = Cdil Vdil

Cconc = 12.0 mol L⁻¹ Cdil = 0.750 mol L⁻¹
Vconc = ? Vdil = 500 mL = 0.500 L
Cdil Vdil / Cconc
Vconc = (0.750 mol L⁻¹ )(0.500 L ) / 12.0 mol L⁻¹
Vconc = 3.12 X 10⁻² L = 31.2 mL
 1F Standard Solutions
 The standard solution is prepared by dissolving an accurately
weighed quantity of a highly pure material called a primary
standard and then diluting to an accurately known volume in a
volumetric flask

 If material is not sufficiently pure then solution is prepared to

give approximately the desired concentration and this
standardized by titrating a weighed quantity of a primary
.standard
 2F Types of Standard Solutions
2 F1 Primary Standard Solutions
A primary standard is a reagent having the known concentration and
used to determine the concentration of the different analyte.
Properties
• Extremely pure
• Stable
• has no waters of hydration
• has a high molecular weight.
 • 2 F2 Secondary standard
A secondary standard is a standard that is prepared in the laboratory
for a specific compound or element analysis.
Properties
• Standardized against a primary standard .
• Unknown concentration.
• Not pure
e.g sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide
 3F Difference between Primary
Secondary standard solution
1. Definition
Primary standard solution: Primary standard solutions are solutions
are made out of primary standard substances.
Secondary standard solution: Secondary standard solution are
solutions are made specifically for a certain analysis.
2. Purity
Primary standard solution: Primary standard solutions are extremely pure
( about 99.9%).
Secondary standard solution: Secondary standard solution are not very
pure.
3.Reactivity
• Primary standard solution: Primary standards are less or not reactive.
• Secondary standard solution: Secondary standards are reactive than
primary standards.
4.Water absorption
Primary standard solution: Primary standards are not hygroscopic.
Secondary standard solution: Secondary standards are somewhat
hygroscopic.
5.Applications
• Primary standard solution: Primary standard solutions are used to
standardize secondary standards and other reagents.
• Secondary standard solution: secondary standard solutions are used for
specific analytical experiments.
G Reporting Analytical
Results (Data Handling)
 ` TheMeanandtheMedian

The most widely used measure of central valueis the mean, x. The
mean, also called the arithmetic mean or the average, is obtained
by dividing the sum of replicate measurements by the number of
measurements in the set:

where xi represents the individual values of x making up the set of

N replicate measurements.
The mean of two or more measurements is their average value.
The Mean and the Median
The median is the middle value in a set of data that has been
arranged in increasing or decreasing order . There are equal
numbers of results that are larger and smaller than the median .
For an odd number of results, the median can be found by
arranging the results in order and locating the middle results. For
.an even number ,the average value of the middle pair is used
 The Mean and the Median
In ideal cases,the mean and median are identical. However ,whene the
number of measurements in the set is small, the values
. often differ
The median is used advantageously when a set of data contain an outlier, a
.result that differs significantly from others in the set
An outlier can have a significant effect on the mean of the set but has no
.effect on the median
H Errors in chemical analysis
 H / Errors in chemical analysis

Wrong laboratory measurements may lead to wrong medical diagnosis and

thus treatment ,lost production resourse and time,manufacturing
rejects ,and product liability.
Therefore , a careful measurements must be carried out to obtain results
that are close to the true or accepted values to avoid wrong results.
It is wroth to mention that there is NO 100% CERTAINTY in any
experimental chemical analysis . Errors are likely to occur in any experiment.
The role of an analyst is to minimize the experimental erorrs as much as
possible.
Types of experimental errors
Experimental
errors

Systematic errors Random errors Gross errors

Instrumental Method Personal

Systematic errors (determinate errors)
• Systematic errors affect the accuracy of results.
• Systematic errors have a definite value, an assignable cause,
and are of the same magnitude for replicate measurements
made in the same way.
• Systematic errors lead to bias in measurement results. Bias
affect all of the data in a set in the same way and that it bears
a sign.
• Bias measure the systematic errors associated with an
analysis.
• It has a negative sign if it causes the results to be low.
• It has a postive sign if it causes the results to be high.
bias = x ― μ
X = mean measured value μ = True value
Detectionofsystematicerrors

1. Analyze a known sample such as a standard reference

material(SRM).
2. If SRMs are not available ,a second independent and
reliable analytical method can be used in parallel with the
method being evaluated.
3. Run a blank analysis. A blank contains the reagent and
solvents used in adetermination, but no analyte . In a
blank determination , all steps of the analysis are
performed on the blank. blank determinations reveal
erorrs due to interfering contaminants from the reagents
and glassware used in the analysis.
4. Round Robin Experiment .Analyzing the same sample
using identical or different procedure and reagents by
Types of systematic errors
 Instrumental errors: caused by nonideal instrument behavior,
by faulty calibrations, or by use under inappropriate
conditions.
 Method errors: arise from nonideal chemical or physical
behavior of analytical systems.
 Personal errors: result from the carelessness, inattention,
or personal limitations of the experimenter.
 systematic instrumental errors
 All measuring devices are potential sources of systematic
errors.
 For example, Pipets, burets, and volumetric flasks may hold or
deliver volumes slightly different from those indicated by their
graduations. These differences arise:
1. From using glassware at a temperature that differs
significantly from the calibration temperature,
2. From distortions in container walls due to heating while
drying,
3. From errors in the original calibration, or
4. From contaminations on the inner surfaces of the containers.
In many cases, errors of these types are detectable and
correctable.
 systematic method errors
 The nonideal chemical or physical behavior of the reagents
and reactions on which an analysis is based often introduce
systematic method errors. This may include :
1. the slowness of some reactions,
2. the incompleteness of others,
3. the instability of some species,
4. the lack of specificity of most reagents, and
5. the possible occurrence of side reactions that interfere with
the measurement process.
 Example: a common method erorr in volumetric analysis
result from the small excess of reagent required to cause an
indicator to change color and signal the equivalence point.
Method errors are usually the most difficult to identify and
correct.
systematic personal errors
 Many measurements require personal judgments. For
example, the color o f a solution at the end point in a
titration, or the level of a liquid with respect to a
graduation in a pipet or buret.
 A universal source of personal error is prejudice.
 We may have a proconceived idea of the true value for
the measurement. So ,we then subconsiously cause the
results to fall close to this value.
 Also common is a prejudice favoring small digits over large
and even numbers over odd.
Using automated and computerized instruments can
eliminate many personal errors.
 Random errors (indeterminate errors)

 Random ,or indeterminate, errors affect measurement

precision.
 They are present in every measurement no matter how careful
the experimenter.
 Random errors can never be totally eliminated,but they might
be reduced by a better experiment.
 Random errors are casued by the many uncontrollable
variables that accompany every measurement.
 Even if we can identify random error sources, it is often
impossible to measure them because most are so small that
cannot be detected individually .
 The cause of random error is usually unknown.
Example : change in humidity and /or temperature in the lab
that cannot be controlled.
 Gross errors
 gross errors usually occur only occasionally, are often
large, and may cause a result to be either high or low.
They are often the product of human errors.
 For example, if part of a precipitate is lost before
weighing, anaiytical results will be low. Touching a
weighing bottel with your fingers after its empty mass is
determined will cause a high mass reading for a solid
weighed in the contaminated bottel.
 Gross errors lead to outliers, results that appear to differ
markedly from all other data in a set of replicate
measurements.
 Performance characteristics of methods/
instruments- figures of Merit

 Main figures of merit include :

1. Accuracy
2. Precision
3. Bias
4. Sensitivity
5. Detection limit will be covered in Instrumental analysis class.
6. selectivity
Accuracy

 Accuracy indicates the closeness of the measurement to the true or

accepted value . Accuracy is often difficult to determine because the true
value is usually unknown. An accepted value must be used instead.
Accuracy is expressed in terms of either absolute or relative error.
 Absolute Error (E)
E = xi - xt
Where xt is the true or accepted value of the quantity.
We must keep the sign in stating the erorr. The (-) sign indicates that the
experimental results is smaller than the accepted value ,whereas the (+)
sign shows that the result is larger than the accepted value.
 Relative Error (E ᵣ ): It is often a more useful than the absolute erorr. The %
Eᵣ is given by the expression

 Relative error is also expressed in parts per thousand (ppt) by multiplying

in 1000 instead of 100.
 Example

Results from six replicate determinations of iron in aqueous

samples of a standard solution containing 20.0 ppm iron (III) are
shown in the table below.
6 5 4 3 2 1 Run
20.3 20.1 19.8 19.6 19.5 19.4 Iron concentration
(ppm)

Calculate 1) the absolute error and 2) the relative erorr expressed in

percent and part per thousand.
Solution: the mean values was first to be calculated,and it was found to
be 19.8 ppm.
1) Absolute error: E= xᵢ - xt
2) Relative error:
 Precision
 Precision is the closeness of result to obtained in exactly the
same way. It describes the reproducibility of measurments.
 Generally, the precision is readily determined by simply
repeating the measurement on replicate samples. Three terms
are widely used to describe the precision of a set of replicate
data: standard deviation ,variance, and coefficient of variation.
These three are functions of how much an individual result 𝒙ᵢ
differs from the mean,called the deviation from the mean dᵢ .
dᵢ =| 𝒙ᵢ - |
 Deviations from the mean are calculated without regard to sign.
 Precision can also be measured by sample standrad deviation
and variance.(see next slides).
Statistics and Chemometrics

for Analytical Chemistry

Main statisitic terms in chemical analysis
• The mean and the median( )
• The Standard Deviation (s)
• Variance – square of the standard deviation
• Relative standard Deviation (RSD) or the coefficient of
variation(CV).
• Gaussian distribution
• F - test
• The Q test for outliers
The mean and the median(x)
• The most widely used measure of central valueis the
mean, x. The mean, also called the arithmetic mean or
the average, is obtained by dividing the sum of replicate
measurements by the number of measurements in the
set:

where xi represents the individual values of x making up

the set of N replicate measurements.
The mean of two or more measurements is their average
value.
The mean and the median
The median is the middle value in a set of data
that has been arranged in increasing or
decreasing order . There are equal numbers of
results that are larger and smaller than the
median . For an odd number of results, the
median can be found by arranging the results in
order and locating the middle results. For an
even number ,the average value of the middle
.pair is used
The mean and the median
In ideal cases,the mean and median are identical. However ,whene
the number of measurements in the set is small, the values
. often differ
The median is used advantageously when a set of data contain an
.outlier, a result that differs significantly from others in the set
An outlier can have a significant effect on the mean of the set but has
.no effect on the median
 Sample standard deviation and variannce
1. The sample standard deviation (s) is given by the equation

Where the quantity (𝒙ᵢ ‒ ) represents the deviation dᵢ of

value 𝒙ᵢ from the mean .
2. The sample variance S
Although the sample standard deviation is usually used
in reporting the precision of analytical data, we often use
variance ( s) to estimate variance . The variance is just the
square of the standard deviation. Scientists tend to use
standard deviation rather than variance because it is
easier to relate a measurement and its precision if they
both have the same units.
 Relative standard Deviation (RSD or Sr)
 standard deviations are frequently given in relative rather than
absolute terms by dividing the standard deviation by the mean
value of the data set. The relative standard deviation, RSD, is
sometimes given the symbol Sr .
RSD = Sᵣ =

 The result is often expressed in parts per thousand (ppt) by

multiplying the ratio by 1000.
RSD in ppt = x 1000
 It can also be expressed in percent by multiplying the ratio by 100%.
%RSD = X 100
 The relative standard deviation multiplied by 100% is also called the
coefficient of variation(CV).
Relative standard deviations often give a clearer picture of data
quality than do absolute standard deviations .
Example

The following results were obtained in the replicate determination of

the lead (Pb) content of a blood sample: 0.752, 0.756, 0.752, 0.751,
and 0,760 ppm Pb . Calculate (a) the variance, (b) the relative
standard deviation in parts per thousand, (c) the coefficient of
.variation
=

S² )a(
 F test

 F test is used to decide whether two sets of data are “

significantly” different from each other. For instance , it is used
to determine whether there is a significant difference between
two methods to analyze same sample.
 F calculated

Where S₁ and S₂ are the variances of the data set 1 and data set
2, respectively( with variances, S1 is the larger of the two) .
 To decide whether S1 is significantly different from S2,
We compre the Fcalculated with F table ( see the table in the next
slide).
If Fcalculated is greater than F table ( at a selected confidence
level),the difference is significant.
The Q test for outliers

The Q test is a simple, widely used statistical test for deciding

whether a suspected result should be retained or rejected. In this
test, the absolute value of the difference between the questionable
result xq and its nearest neighbor xn is divided by the spread w of the
entire set to give the quantity Q:
 The Q test for outliers -example
The analysis of a city drinking water for arsenic yielded values of 5.60.
5.64, 5.70, 5.69, and 5.81 ppm. The last value appears anomalous;
should it be rejected at the 95% confidence level ?
5.60, 5.64, 5.69, 5.70, 5.81

For five measurements, Qcrit at

the 95% confidence level is
0.71. Because 0.52 < 0.71, we
must retain the outlier at the
95% confidence level
The Q test for outliers -example
The analysis of a city drinking water for arsenic yielded values of 5.60.
5.64, 5.70, 5.69, and6.81 ppm. The last value appears abnormal;
? should it be rejected at the 95% confidence level
5.60 , 5.64, 5.69, 5.70, 6.81

For five measurements, Qcrit

at the 95% confidence level is
0.71. Because 0.92 > 0.71, we
must reject the outlier at the
95% confidence level.
Gaussian or normal distribution
• A theoretical bell-shaped distribution of results obtained for replicate

measurements (usually ≥ 30 measurements ) that are affcted by

random errors.
Gaussian or normal distribution

Example: observed measured mass (g) for sample

2.505 2.503 2.507 2.506 2.502
2.508 2.504 2.505 2.507 2.504
2.503 2.506 2.507 2.505 2.503
2.504 2.506 2.505 2.506 2.504
2.504 2.507 2.506 2.506 2.505
2.503 2.505 2.504 2.505 2.505
Gaussian or normal distribution
The values are not identical , and not all values occur with equal
frequency .

frequency value
1 2.502
4 2.503
6 2.504
8 2.505
6 2.506
4 2.507
1 2.508
 Gaussian or normal distribution
A histogram of the
Fequency of mass values

.frequency data
The symmetrical 9

arrangement of 8
7
the values 6
arround the most 5
.frequently value 4
3
2
1
0
2.502 2.503 2.504 2.505 2.506 2.507 2.508
Gaussian or normal distribution
A histogram Fequency of mass values

appraches a
shape called a 9
Gaussian 8

distribution or “ 7
6
”bell curve 5
4
3
2
1
0
2.502 2.503 2.504 2.505 2.506 2.507 2.508
Gaussian or normal distribution

The peak of the Gaussian distribution falls

at the mean value
Or, closer to F ↓

the ideal R
e
Gaussian
q
: shape u
e
n
c
y
Individual data value
 Example
• A quality control manger in a pharmaceutical quality control lab
has to make a decision about whether to release a trainee to
work alone after he finishes his training program. The mangers
decision is based on an experiment that is given to the trainee
to be carried out and comparad to a work that is done by an
experienced analyst. The experiment is to determine the mass
of nifedipine in 10 mg adalate tablets. The results are listed
below:
• calculate the Mean( ) ,Standard deviation(S) ,variannce(V) ,
RSD and F test at (confidence level 95%) .

Run Run 9 Run 8 Run 7 Run 6 Run 5 Run 4 Run 3 Run 2 Run 1
10

9.3 9.6 9.2 9.0 9.5 9.1 9.7 9.5 9.1 9.7 Trainee
9.9 9.7 9.8 9.8 9.9 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.7 9.8 Expert
 Take home exam # 1
A quality control manger in a pharmaceutical quality control lab has to
make a decision about whether to release a trainee to work alone after
he finishes his training program. The mangers decision is based on an
experiment that is given to the trainee to be carried out and comparad
to a work that is done by an experienced analyst. The experiment is to
determine the mass of Enalaprilin 10 mg Enalapril.
calculate the Mean( ) ,Standard deviation(S) ,variannce( V) , RSD and
F test at (confidence level 95%) .

Run Run 9 Run 8 Run 7 Run 6 Run 5 Run 4 Run 3 Run 2 Run
10 1
4.1 4.3 4.6 4.2 4.0 4.7 4.5 4.7 4.5 4.1 Trainee
4.9 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.7 4.8 4.8 4.9 4.8 4.7 Expert