Principles

Chapter 4
Principles
Mona Sa’ad Al-Osaimy
Supervised by
Prof/ Antar Abdulleh

Principles
How learning can be encouraged*
What is to be taught or how it might be*

monitored and assessed
Principles
The purpose of this chapter is to show that a

sensible basis to guide teaching and to help
in design of courses rests on the coming
.principles
These principles must be based on research
and theory. and described based on a
pedagogical perspective, focusing on
.curriculum design and teaching training
:The principles are divided into three groups
Conent and Sequence-1

Format and Presentation-2
Monitoring and Assessment-3
All the principles are ranked in order of their (

.)importance
:The principles are divided into three groups
Conent and Sequence-1

Means what goes into a language course and order. The
aim of these principles is to make sure that the
.learners are gaining something useful from the course
Format and Presentation-2
Deals with format and presentation, with what actually
happens. The teachers may have their greatest
.influence on the course here
Monitoring and Assessment-3
.Deals with some degree evaluation
Content and Sequence -1
A language course should provide the -1

best possible coverage of language in
use through the inclusion of items that
occur frequently in the language, so that
learners get the best return for their
.learning effort
Content and Sequence
: The key word for this principle is
Frequency
General rules about frequency, coverage*
:and types of items
A small number of high frequency .1
items will cover a large proportion of a
.text
A large number of low-frequency .2
items must be known after the few most
.frequent items are known
The high frequency items are in their.3
.form rather than meaning
:The rules can be applied in the following ways *
A language course should give most attention .1
.to the high- frequency items of the language
Low-frequency items should be dealt after the.2

.sufficient learning of the high-frequency items
Most courses have no concern for frequency of(*

occurrence and that ignorance can to lead to
.)more than one bad result for learning efforts
?How to locate the frequency items *

The frequency items can be checked by
comparing them with available frequency
.lists
:For example of the lists
.West General Service List (vocabulary)-1
Kucera and Francis list (words)-346 words-2
.George’s verb-form frequency list (verbs) -3
How to overcome the problem if there is a *

mixture of high and low frequency items in a
:course? The teacher must do the following
Include the high-frequency items at the-1
.appropriate level for the learners
Ignore and pass quickly the low-frequency-2
.items
Provide practice of high-frequency in and out-3
.the class
A language course should train learners in -2

how to learn a language, so that they
become effective and independent language
.learners
Training
Learning and coping strategies can include the *

:following
Deep processing of language and content -1

vocabulary learning cards-
word part strategies-
mnemonic strategies e.g. key words-
predicting-
note taking strategies-
Gaining input -2
peer interaction strategies-
strategies for controlling the teachers-
Coping strategies-3
inferring vocabulary from context-
coping with complex sentences-
There are five suggested principles the *

teachers and designers should consider by
:Cotterall (2000)
Learner goals.1
The language learning process.2
Tasks.3
Learner strategies.4
Reflection of learning.5
Learners should have increasingly spaced, -3

repeated opportunity to give attention to
.wanted items in a variety of context
Wanted Items
? How to check for the repetition *

:There are to ways to do so
To test frequently whether wanted .1
.items are learned
To choose small of very useful.2
neglected items, the group should
probably not contain more than 20
.items to make checking manageable
The language focus of a course needs-4

to be on generaliseable features of the
.language system
Generalisability
A command of language features will *

enable the learners to make “creative”
use of the language. That is, to say and
writ things they have not met or produced
before, and to understand things that
.they have met or produced before
The teacher should ask this question “Does*
today's work help the learners to deal
”?with tomorrows’ task
:For Example
When explaining an un known word, the
teacher should try to include the
underlying concept rather than the
meaning of the word in one particular
.context
e.g. Sweet should be explained as sweet
.taste, sweet music and sweet smile
The previous principle can be applied on the

:following
Vocabulary.1
high frequency vocabulary, underlying-
.meaning and word parts
Structure.2
as frequent structures-
Discourse.3
topic type, rhetorical structure and cohesive-
device
How to check if the principle is applied in the *

.. course or not? The teacher should
.look at the learning goal of the lesson .1
Evaluate the goal in terms of uses, if it .2
allows the learner to make to make the
.widest possible use of language
If a course does not do this , teachers can (
change the focus of the course by adapting
)the exercises and activities
A language course should -5

progressively cover useful language
.items, skills and strategies
Goals
This principle is applied in a variety of ways *

.by different language teaching methods
Aural-oral courses and many others assign
particular structures, functions, or
.vocabulary to particular lessons
Cambridge English Course” is a good”*
example of this, it lists the items to be
learned in each lesson in its very detailed
.table of content
?How to check if this principle applied or not *

Have lists of useful items to check the course .1
.against
Make sure that each learning task has a goal. .2
And inform the learners about the goals.
While the learning goals can include language
items, content materials(ideas), skill elements
.(fluency), discourse features (text structure)
Adapt and replace the task in case there is .3
.no goals
The teaching of language items should -6

take account of the most favorable
sequencing of these items and should
take account of when the learners are
.most ready to learn them
Sequencing
On the basis on prerequisite/rearrangement *

analysis and on evidence from second
acquisition studies, Pienemann and Johnson
(1987) have made a sequenced list of
.structures
The sequence of the items in the list is the
same as the sequence in which second-
.language learners learn them
Teaching Hypothesis says that teaching

can not change the sequence in which
the structures are learned. This is
because a structure learned at one stage
is a necessary prerequisite for later
stages in teaching and curriculum
.design
? How to imply the hypothesis of teaching*

A course which does not present the items in this -1
sequence will result in teaching which has little
.effect
It is important to know what stage in the sequence -2
a learner is at because, to be effective, teaching has
.to be directed at the next stage
The importance of all this research is that it provides a(

theoretical, logical and testable basis for syllabus
construction, and that it indicates an effective,
.)restrictive role for teaching
Example Structure
?How are you Single words, formulae .1
The tea is hot SVO, SVO .2
Yesterday I work ADVERB PREPOSING .3
Does he work
This I like DO FRONTING .4
He don’t eat meat TOPICALIZATION .5
?Where is my purse NEG+V(don’t).6
?Have he seen it PSEUDO-INVERSION.7
He turn the radio on YES/NO-INVERSION.8
We like to sing PARTICLE SHIFT.9
She comes home V-”TO”-V.10
They did not buy anything 11.3RD-SG-S
Where has he seen you DO-2ND.12
They spoke gently
AUX-2ND.13
?It’s expensive, isn’t it
He has often heard this ADV-LY.14
Q-TAG.15
ADV-VP.16
The course should help the learners to -7

make the most effective use of previous
.knowledge
: The key words for this principle are
Use of previous
Knowledge
Do you agree that much of previous knowledge *

that is brought to second-language learning
?comes from the learners’ first language
There is plenty of evidence however that aspects
of the first language can help learning. This can
.occur in all language skills and content
e.g. Giving questions of 1st language to apply on
.the SL/FL text, using familiar terms of answers
The items in a language course should -8

be sequenced so that items which are
learned together have a position effect
on each other for learning, and so that
.interference are avoided
Interference
Research has shown that items which have loose *

indirect connections with each other (indirect
free associates) are learned more effectively if
.they are learned at the same time
Items which have strong meaning relationships
(opposites, near synonyms, free associates)
interfere with each other and that make learning
.more difficult
Because these associations are in the curriculum
designer mind rather than in helping the
.learners
?How to overcome this problem *

.Let the occurrence of items naturally .1
Check the sequence of items in the course .2
to see that strongly related items are not
.presented together
For example, teaching all parts of the body
together or a range of colors. These called
.”“catenizing
?How to overcome this problem *

:Lets take (hot & cold ) example
If hot and cold are presented together in the
course book, the teacher can help the
learners master hot( the longer time the best
results) before the book introduces hot and
cold. If one item in a pair is already well
.known , interference is unlikely to occur
Format and Presentation -2
As much as possible, the learners -1

should be interested and excited about
learning the language and they should
.come to value this learning
Format and Presentation
Learners’
Attitude
Ways to attract and involve the learners in *

:learning
Make the subject matter of the lesson.1
.relevant and interesting to them
Give them some control and decision .2
making over what they do. Set and explain
the rationale and goals of the activities (will
be discussed in CH 10)
Set clear tasks, with high possibilities of the.3
.learners to success
Ways to attract and involve the learners in *

:learning
Set many short achievement tests to .4

encourage the learners to work ,and show
.their success. Keep records of their success
.Reward learners efforts.5
.Use tasks that contain built-in challenges.6
A course should include a roughly -2

even balanced of the four strands of
meaning-focused input, language-
focused learning, meaning-focused
.output and influence activities
Amount of Time
Meaning-
focused
input
Four
Fluency main Language
-focused
activities Stran learning
ds
Meaning-
focused
output
Main Strands percentage

Meaning-focused
20% inpu
30% Language-focused learn-
ing
Meaning-focused
output
20%
‫ا‬Fluency
activities
30%
If any of these strands was done out of the *

class, that would be counted from its portion
.of time
Balancing the four strands is a very important *
part of curriculum design. The neglect or
over-emphases of a strand is a major failing
.in many language courses
?What to do if it is not balanced*
The teacher should change the nature of
.existing activities
There should be substantial quantities of -3

interesting comprehensible receptive activity
.in both listening and reading
: The key words for this principle are
Large Quantity of
Listening & Reading
Elle and Mangubhai have made a very *

practical and well-conducted experiment.
They used children’s book that were popular
with native speakers of English for the
experimental group. Eight months later, with
four English class per week, it was found that
the learners in the experimental group had
made 15 months’ progress on a variety of
.proficiency measures of English
The requirements of such an approach to *

learning are that the learners have access to
large quantities of interesting reading or
.listening materials
How can you build up class sets of reading *
:texts
:There are many ways, for example
.Seek funding.1
Make a list of the required books, their total
cost, and information about where they can
.be obtained
Get each learner to buy one text , then .2

.exchange it the books amongst the learners
Build up a reading box of materials.3

newspapers, or written by the learners, groups (
. )or teachers
Place a book in a glass-covered case. Each day .4

turn page so that the learners can read more of
.the story each day
How the teacher can incorporate this approach into *

?a language course
Set aside a regular time in each language class for .1
.listening to a short story
.Provide taped stories for class or at home.2
.Use quantity-based listening techniques .3
e.g. listening to pictures, padded questions and listen
.and draw
At least 25 per cent of the class time should be (*
spent on such activities, and this can be greater for
.)the early stages of learning
What can make teachers neglect this *

?approach
Because the teachers not aware of it, not know
.how does it work or not have the materials
.All these causes can be overcome
A language course should provide activities -4

aimed at increasing the fluency with which
the learners can use the language they
already know, both receptively and
.productively
Fluency
Fluency means the ability to express oneself easily *

and articulately. And aims to give the learner ready
.access to what is already known
.The best Fluency activity is ( the 4/3/2 technique) *

Which the learners work in pairs with one acting as the
speaker and the other as a listener. The speaker talks
for four minutes on a topic while his partner listens.
Then the pairs change with each speaker giving the
same information to a new partner in a three minutes,
.followed by a further change and a two minute talk
The previous activity has these important

:features
Being encouraged to process a large .1
.quantity of language
.Having limited demands .2
Being helped to reach a high level of.3
.performance
The 4/3/2 technique the increasing in rate is *

accompanies by improvements in quality of the talk as
measured by hesitation, grammatical accuracy and
.grammatical complexity
Improvements in fluency is not simply improvement in( *

.)speed access
How to check if there a sufficient fluency activities in a *

?course
That can be done by looking at the amount of time given
.to fluency activities

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Chapter 4

Prof/ Antar Abdulleh

How learning can be encouraged*

What is to be taught or how it might be*

The purpose of this chapter is to show that a

Conent and Sequence-1

All the principles are ranked in order of their (

Conent and Sequence-1

A language course should provide the -1

: The key word for this principle is

Low-frequency items should be dealt after the.2

Most courses have no concern for frequency of(*

?How to locate the frequency items *

How to overcome the problem if there is a *

A language course should train learners in -2

: The key word for this principle is

Learning and coping strategies can include the *

Deep processing of language and content -1

There are five suggested principles the *

Learners should have increasingly spaced, -3

: The key word for this principle is

? How to check for the repetition *

The language focus of a course needs-4

: The key word for this principle is

A command of language features will *

The previous principle can be applied on the

How to check if the principle is applied in the *

A language course should -5

: The key word for this principle is

This principle is applied in a variety of ways *

?How to check if this principle applied or not *

The teaching of language items should -6

: The key word for this principle is

On the basis on prerequisite/rearrangement *

Teaching Hypothesis says that teaching

? How to imply the hypothesis of teaching*

The importance of all this research is that it provides a(

The course should help the learners to -7

: The key words for this principle are

Do you agree that much of previous knowledge *

The items in a language course should -8

: The key word for this principle is

Research has shown that items which have loose *

?How to overcome this problem *

?How to overcome this problem *

As much as possible, the learners -1

: The key word for this principle is

Ways to attract and involve the learners in *

Ways to attract and involve the learners in *

Set many short achievement tests to .4

A course should include a roughly -2

: The key word for this principle is

Main Strands percentage

If any of these strands was done out of the *

There should be substantial quantities of -3

: The key words for this principle are

Elle and Mangubhai have made a very *

The requirements of such an approach to *