ITD34203

COMPUTER NETWORK
Ts. Diyana bt Ab Kadir
diyana@unikl.edu.my
Room 612
Chapter 2: Network Model
2.1 The Rules

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 3
 The Rules
Communication Fundamentals

Networks can vary in size and complexity. It is not enough to have a connection, devices must agree on “how” to communicate.
There are three elements to any communication:
◦ There will be a source (sender).
◦ There will be a destination (receiver).
◦ There will be a channel (media) that provides for the path of communications to occur.
The Rules
Communication Protocols
•All communications are governed by protocols.
•Protocols are the rules that communications will follow.
•These rules will vary depending on the protocol.
 The Rules
Rule Establishment
• Individuals must use established rules or agreements to govern the conversation.
• The first message is difficult to read because it is not formatted properly. The second shows the message properly
formatted
The Rules
Rule Establishment
Protocols must account for the following requirements:
◦ An identified sender and receiver
◦ Common language and grammar
◦ Speed and timing of delivery
◦ Confirmation or acknowledgment requirements
The Rules
Network Protocols Requirements
Common computer protocols must be in agreement and include the following requirements:
◦ Message encoding
◦ Message formatting and encapsulation
◦ Message size
◦ Message timing
◦ Message delivery options
The Rules
Message Encoding
•Encoding is the process of converting information into another acceptable form for transmission.
•Decoding reverses this process to interpret the information.
The Rules
Message Formatting and Encapsulation
•When a message is sent, it must use a specific format or structure.
•Message formats depend on the type of message and the channel that is used to deliver the message.
 The Rules
Message Size
Encoding between hosts must be in an appropriate format for the medium.
◦ Messages sent across the network are converted to bits
◦ The bits are encoded into a pattern of light, sound, or electrical impulses.
◦ The destination host must decode the signals to interpret the message.
 The Rules
Message Timing
Message timing includes the following:
Flow Control – Manages the rate of data transmission and defines how much information can be sent and the
speed at which it can be delivered.
Response Timeout – Manages how long a device waits when it does not hear a reply from the destination.
Access method - Determines when someone can send a message.
◦ There may be various rules governing issues like “collisions”. This is when more than one device sends
traffic at the same time and the messages become corrupt.
◦ Some protocols are proactive and attempt to prevent collisions; other protocols are reactive and establish
a recovery method after the collision occurs.
 The Rules
A node about the node icon
• The node icon is typically a circle, to represent all devices.
• The figure illustrates the use of the node icon for delivery options.
2.2 Protocols

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 14
Protocols
Network protocol overview
Network protocols define a common set of rules. Protocol Type Description

• Can be implemented on devices in:

◦ Software Network enable two or more devices to communicate
◦ Hardware Communications over one or more networks
◦ Both
Network secure data to provide authentication, data
Security integrity, and data encryption
• Protocols have their own:
◦ Function
Routing enable routers to exchange route information,
◦ Format compare path information, and select best path
◦ Rules
Service used for the automatic detection of devices or
Discovery services
Protocols

Network Protocol Functions

•Devices use agreed-upon protocols to communicate .
•Protocols may have one or more functions.

Function Description
Addressing Identifies sender and receiver
Reliability Provides guaranteed delivery
Flow Control Ensures data flows at an efficient rate
Sequencing Uniquely labels each transmitted segment of data
Error Detection Determines if data became corrupted during transmission
Application Interface Process-to-process communications between network applications
Protocols

Protocol Interaction
• Networks require the use of several protocols.
• Each protocol has its own function and format.

Protocol Function
Hypertext Transfer  Governs the way a web server and a web client interact
Protocol (HTTP)  Defines content and format
Transmission  Manages the individual conversations
Control Protocol  Provides guaranteed delivery
(TCP)  Manages flow control
Internet Protocol Delivers messages globally from the sender to the receiver
(IP)
Ethernet Delivers messages from one NIC to another NIC on the same
Ethernet Local Area Network (LAN)
Protocol

Network Protocol Suites

Protocols must be able to work with other protocols.
Protocol suite:
◦ A group of inter-related protocols necessary to
perform a communication function
◦ Sets of rules that work together to help solve a
problem

The protocols are viewed in terms of layers:

◦ Higher Layers
◦ Lower Layers- concerned with moving data and
provide services to upper layers
Protocol
TCP/IP Protocol example
• TCP/IP protocols operate at the application, transport,
and internet layers.
• The most common network access layer LAN protocols
are Ethernet and WLAN (wireless LAN).
Protocol
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
• TCP/IP is the protocol suite used by the internet and
includes many protocols.
• TCP/IP is:
◦ An open standard protocol suite that is freely
available to the public and can be used by any
vendor
◦ A standards-based protocol suite that is endorsed by
the networking industry and approved by a
standards organization to ensure interoperability
Protocol
TCP/IP Communication Process
• A web server encapsulating and sending a web • A client de-encapsulating the web page for the
page to a client. web browser
2.3 Reference Models

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 22
Reference Models
The Benefits of using a layered model
Complex concepts such as how a network operates can be difficult
to explain and understand. For this reason, a layered model is
used.
Two layered models describe network operations:
• Open System Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model
• TCP/IP Reference Model
Reference Models
The Benefits of using a layered model
These are the benefits of using a layered model:
• Assist in protocol design because protocols that operate at a specific layer have defined information that they act upon
and a defined interface to the layers above and below
• Foster competition because products from different vendors can work together
• Prevent technology or capability changes in one layer from affecting other layers above and below
• Provide a common language to describe networking functions and capabilities
Reference Models
The OSI Reference Model
OSI Model Layer Description
7 - Application Contains protocols used for process-to-process communications.
6 - Presentation Provides for common representation of the data transferred between application layer
services.
5 - Session Provides services to the presentation layer and to manage data exchange.

4 - Transport Defines services to segment, transfer, and reassemble the data for individual communications.

3 - Network Provides services to exchange the individual pieces of data over the network.

2 - Data Link Describes methods for exchanging data frames over a common media.

1 - Physical Describes the means to activate, maintain, and de-activate physical connections.
Reference Models
The TCP/IP Reference Model
TCP/IP Model Layer Description

Application Represents data to the user, plus encoding and dialog control.

Transport Supports communication between various devices across diverse networks.

Internet Determines the best path through the network.

Network Access Controls the hardware devices and media that make up the network.
Reference Models
OSI and TCP/IP Model Comparison
• The OSI model divides the network access layer and the
application layer of the TCP/IP model into multiple layers.
• The TCP/IP protocol suite does not specify which protocols
to use when transmitting over a physical medium.
• OSI Layers 1 and 2 discuss the necessary procedures to
access the media and the physical means to send data
over a network.
2.4 Data Encapsulation

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Data Encapsulation
Segmenting Messages
Segmenting is the process of breaking up messages into
smaller units. Multiplexing is the processes of taking
multiple streams of segmented data and interleaving
them together.
Segmenting messages has two primary benefits:
• Increases speed - Large amounts of data can be sent
over the network without tying up a communications
link.
• Increases efficiency - Only segments which fail to reach
the destination need to be retransmitted, not the
entire data stream.
Data Encapsulation
Sequencing

Sequencing messages is the process of numbering the

segments so that the message may be reassembled at the
destination.
TCP is responsible for sequencing the individual segments.
Data Encapsulation
Protocol Data Unit
Encapsulation is the process where protocols add their
information to the data.
• At each stage of the process, a PDU has a different name to
reflect its new functions.
• There is no universal naming convention for PDUs, in this
course, the PDUs are named according to the protocols of
the TCP/IP suite.
• PDUs passing down the stack are as follows:
1. Data (Data Stream)
2. Segment
3. Packet
4. Frame
5. Bits (Bit Stream)
Data Encapsulation
Encapsulation Example
• Encapsulation is a top down process.
• The level above does its process and then
passes it down to the next level of the model.
This process is repeated by each layer until it is
sent out as a bit stream.
Data Encapsulation
De-encapsulation Example
• Data is de-encapsulated as it moves up the
stack.
• When a layer completes its process, that layer
strips off its header and passes it up to the next
level to be processed. This is repeated at each
layer until it is a data stream that the
application can process.
1. Received as Bits (Bit Stream)
2. Frame
3. Packet
4. Segment
5. Data (Data Stream)
2.5 Data Access

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 Data Access
Addresses
Both the data link and network layers use addressing to deliver data from source to destination.
Network layer source and destination addresses - Responsible for delivering the IP packet from original source to the
final destination.
Data link layer source and destination addresses – Responsible for delivering the data link frame from one network
interface card (NIC) to another NIC on the same network.
Data Access
Layer 3 Logical Address
The IP packet contains two IP addresses:
◦ Source IP address - The IP address of the
sending device, original source of the
packet.
◦ Destination IP address - The IP address of
the receiving device, final destination of
the packet.

These addresses may be on the same link or

remote.
Data Access
Layer 3 Logical Address
An IP address contains two parts:
• Network portion (IPv4) or Prefix (IPv6)
◦ The left-most part of the address indicates the
network group which the IP address is a
member.
◦ Each LAN or WAN will have the same network
portion.

• Host portion (IPv4) or Interface ID (IPv6)

◦ The remaining part of the address identifies a
specific device within the group.
◦ This portion is unique for each device on the
network.
Data Access
Devices on the Same Network
When devices are on the same network the
source and destination will have the same
number in network portion of the address.
◦ PC1 – 192.168.1.110
◦ FTP Server – 192.168.1.9
Data Access
Role of the Data Link Layer Addresses: Same IP Network
When devices are on the same Ethernet network
the data link frame will use the actual MAC
address of the destination NIC.
MAC addresses are physically embedded into
the Ethernet NIC and are local addressing.
• The Source MAC address will be that of the
originator on the link.
• The Destination MAC address will always be on
the same link as the source, even if the
ultimate destination is remote.
Data Access
Devices on a Remote Network

• What happens when the actual (ultimate) destination

is not on the same LAN and is remote?
• What happens when PC1 tries to reach the Web
Server?
• Does this impact the network and data link layers?
Data Access
Role of the Network Layer Addresses
When the source and destination have a
different network portion, this means they are
on different networks.
◦ PC1 – 192.168.1
◦ Web Server – 172.16.1
Data Access
Data Link Addresses
• Since data link addressing is local addressing, it will have a source and destination for each segment or hop of the
journey to the destination.
• The MAC addressing for the first segment is:
◦ Source – (PC1 NIC) sends frame
◦ Destination – (First Router- DGW interface) receives frame
Data Access
Data Link Addresses
The MAC addressing for the second hop is:
◦ Source – (First Router- exit interface) sends frame
◦ Destination – (Second Router) receives frame
Data Access
Data Link Addresses
The MAC addressing for the last segment is:
◦ Source – (Second Router- exit interface) sends frame
◦ Destination – (Web Server NIC) receives frame
Data Access
Data Link Addresses
• Notice that the packet is not modified, but the frame is changed, therefore the L3 IP addressing does not change
from segment to segment like the L2 MAC addressing.
• The L3 addressing remains the same since it is global and the ultimate destination is still the Web Server.
2.6 Summary

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Summary
What did I learn in this module?
Summary
Networking terms