MODULE 2

IoT SENSING
PREPARED BY
DR. SANJANA PRASAD
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF ECE
HKBKCE
IoT Applications & the Role of Sensing and
Actuation

• IoT Applications & the Role of Sensing and Actuation

• Key Role of Sensing in IoT:
• Sensing is the first step in most IoT applications, including:
• Consumer IoT
• Industrial IoT
• Hobby-based IoT Solutions
• Actuation as the Final Step:
• Actuation is typically the final operation in IoT systems, following sensing.
Transduction and Transducers in
IoT Systems
• Transduction:
• The process of converting one form of energy into another.
• Example:
• A microphone converts sound (mechanical energy) into electrical signals.
• A loudspeaker converts electrical signals back into sound (mechanical energy).
• Transducers:
• Devices that enable energy conversion in IoT systems (sensors and actuators).
• Can convert energy between various forms (electrical, mechanical, chemical,
light, sound, etc.).
• Sensors: Devices that detect and measure changes in their
environment.
• Function of Sensors: They respond to external stimuli and convert
these into electrical signals.
• Examples of Sensor Conversions:
• Temperature Sensor: Converts heat to an electrical signal.
• Barometer: Converts atmospheric pressure to an electrical signal.
• Sensitivity: Each sensor is designed to detect only a specific property (e.g.,
temperature, pressure) and ignores other properties.
• Non-Intrusive: Sensors do not alter the property they measure (e.g.,
measuring temperature doesn't affect the actual temperature).
• Practical Example: A temperature sensor can detect a rise in temperature (like
in a fire) and communicate this change to a monitor via a processor.
• Classification of Sensors: Based on Power Requirements, Sensor
Output, and Property to be Measured.
• Power Requirements:
• Active Sensors: Do not need external power; they generate output
directly from the external stimuli.
• Example: Photodiode (converts light to electrical signals).
• Passive Sensors: Require an external power source; output is
modulated by the sensor's characteristics.
• Example: Thermistor (requires voltage or current to detect resistance
changes).
• Sensor Output Types: Determines compatibility with IoT systems and
processors.
• Analog Sensors: Produce a continuous output signal proportional to
the measured quantity. Measure continuous physical quantities like
temperature, pressure, speed, etc.
• Example: Thermocouple (measures temperature with a continuous response).
• Digital Sensors: Generate discrete (binary) output signals, typically "1"
(ON) or "0" (OFF).Digital signals are easily integrated with modern
digital processors. Output can be transmitted in bits (serial) or bytes
(parallel).
• Additional Components for Integration:Analog sensors require extra
components like Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADC) and Voltage Level
Converters to connect with digital processors.
• Classification Based on Measured Property:
• Important for determining sensor quantity and placement in IoT setups.

• Types of Measured Properties:

• Low Spatial Variation: Properties like ambient temperature and atmospheric
pressure, varying mainly over time.
• High Spatial and Temporal Variation: Properties like sound and images,
varying both in space and time.
• Types of Sensors:
• Scalar Sensors:
• Measure only the magnitude of a quantity.
• Examples: Temperature, pressure, and color.
• Example Sensor: Thermocouple (measures temperature regardless of
orientation).
• Vector Sensors:
• Sensitive to both magnitude and direction/orientation.
• Examples: Velocity and images.
• Example Sensor: Electronic gyroscope (measures orientation along three
axes).
• Sensors: These are devices that measure physical properties like light,
temperature, force, position, speed, pressure, and chemicals. Each sensor
detects changes in the environment and sends this data as an electrical
signal.
• ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter): Many sensors produce analog signals
(continuous signals). The ADC converts these signals into digital format
(binary code) so the processor can understand and process the data.
• Processor: This is the "brain" of the system. It receives data from sensors,
processes it, and decides what actions to take or information to send.
• Power Supply (AC-DC Converter): The system needs power to operate,
which can come from either Direct Current (DC) or Alternating Current
(AC). The AC-DC converter changes AC power into DC, which most
electronic components use.
• Radio Module: This component allows the system to communicate wirelessly
with other devices or networks. It can use technologies like WiFi, Bluetooth,
Zigbee, LoRa, RFID/NFC, Z-Wave, and cellular networks (GSM/3G/5G) to send and
receive data over distances.
• Actuator (Optional): An actuator is a device that performs an action based on the
processor's instructions. For example, it could turn on a light, move a motor, or
open a valve. Actuators can be Pneumatic (air-driven), Hydraulic (liquid-driven),
Electrical, or Mechanical.
• Interface: This is a connecting layer that allows the processor to control the
actuator if needed, allowing the system to interact with its environment
physically.
• Sensor Resolution:
• Resolution is the smallest change a sensor can detect in what it measures.Higher
resolution means the sensor can detect finer changes in the measured quantity.
• For example, if Sensor A detects temperature changes of 0.5°C and Sensor B
detects changes as small as 0.25°C, Sensor B has a higher resolution.
• Note: High resolution does not mean higher accuracy.

• Sensor Accuracy:
• Accuracy is how close a sensor's reading is to the actual value of what it's
measuring.
• For example, if a weight sensor reads a 100 kg object as 99.98 kg, it is very
accurate (99.98% accurate with a ±0.02% error).
• High accuracy means the sensor gives results close to the true or real value.
• Sensor Precision:
• Precision refers to the sensor's ability to consistently produce the
same measurement for the same object in repeated tests.A highly
precise sensor will show little to no variation in its readings each time
it measures the same thing.
• Example:If a weight sensor measures a 100 kg object multiple times
and gives readings like 98.28 kg, 100.34 kg, and 101.11 kg, this shows
low precision due to significant differences between each reading.F
• or high precision, the readings should be close to each other every
time.
Introduction to Sensorial Deviations in IoT
Sensors

• Objective: Understanding types of errors in IoT sensors and their

impact
• Importance in IoT: Critical applications (healthcare, industrial
monitoring) require accurate sensors
Types of Sensor Errors
• Categories:
• Sensitivity Error,
• Offset Error,
• Non-linearity,
• Drift,
• Noise,
• Hysteresis,
• Quantization Error,
• Aliasing,
• Environmental Influences
Full-Scale Range & Truncation

• Definition: Measurement range between max and min values of a

sensor
• Truncation: When sensor output exceeds limits, values are set to max
or min
Sensitivity Error
• Explanation: Deviation from specified sensitivity
• Cause: Often due to fabrication and calibration issues
Offset Error (Bias)

• Definition: Constant deviation from actual measurement

• Example: Sensor output shows 1.1°C instead of actual 0°C, bias =
1.1°C
Non-Linearity

• Definition: Deviation of sensor’s Transfer Function (TF) from linear

behavior
• Measurement: Degree of deviation over full range (expressed as a
percentage)
Drift

• Explanation: Gradual, independent changes in output over time

• Cause: Long-term physical or material changes in the sensor
Noise
• Definition: Random, time-varying signal deviations
• Impact: Reduces signal clarity and measurement precision
Hysteresis Error
• Definition: Dependence of current sensor output on previous inputs
• Example: Seen in analog and magnetic sensors; heating/cooling cycles
• Measurement: Expressed as positive and negative percentage of full-
range
Quantization Error
• Definition: Difference between analog signal and its digital
approximation
• Cause: Arises during analog-to-digital conversion in digital sensors
Aliasing Error
• Explanation: Occurs due to incorrect sampling frequency
• Impact: Different signals represented as one if sampling rate is poorly
chosen
Environmental Influences
• Explanation: External conditions can impact sensor output
• Example: Semiconductor-based sensors may have deviations due to
temperature
Conclusion
• Summary: Key types of sensor errors and their implications
• Importance: Recognizing and mitigating these errors is essential for
critical IoT applications
• Introduction to Sensing Types
• Objective: Overview of sensing categories based on environment and
sensor types
• Types of Sensing: Scalar, multimedia, hybrid, virtual
• Types of Sensing Categories
1.Scalar Sensing
2.Multimedia Sensing
3.Hybrid Sensing
4.Virtual Sensing
Scalar Sensing
• Definition: Measurement of features with amplitude changes over time

• Examples: Ambient temperature, current, pressure, rainfall, light, humidity, flux

• Characteristics: No directional or spatial property needed

• Method: Measurement changes over time provide necessary data

• Scalar Sensors

• Purpose: Measure scalar quantities

• Examples of Scalar Sensors: Refer to Figures 5.3(b), 5.3(d), 5.3(e), 5.3(f), 5.3(g),
5.3(h), 5.3(i), 5.3(j)

• Application Example: Fire detection using temperature sensing (Figure 5.4(a))

Summary of Scalar Sensing
• Key Points: Quantifiable by amplitude changes, no spatial property

• Relevance: Effective for monitoring non-directional quantities like temperature

and humidity
Multimedia Sensing
• Definition: Sensing features with both spatial and temporal variance

• Examples of Vector Quantities: Images, direction, speed, acceleration, sound,

force, energy, momentum

• Characteristics: Quantities have direction and magnitude; follow vector addition

laws

• Sensors Used: Vector sensors (e.g., camera, accelerometers)

• Example Application: Surveillance camera monitoring (Figure 5.4(b))

Hybrid Sensing
• Definition: Combines scalar and multimedia sensing simultaneously

• Purpose: Collects scalar and vector data to provide comprehensive insights

• Example - Agricultural Field Monitoring:

• Scalar Sensors: Soil moisture, temperature for water retention

• Multimedia Sensors: Camera to monitor plant leaf color

• Outcome: Combined data assesses plant health

• Other Examples: Smart parking systems, traffic management (Figure 5.4(c)

Virtual Sensing
• Definition: Uses extrapolated or inferred data from nearby sensors to provide
measurements without physical sensors

• Use Case: Ideal for large-scale, dense monitoring (e.g., agriculture)

• Example - Agricultural Fields:

• Farmer A’s Sensors: Actual soil and temperature readings

• Neighbor B’s Fields: Inferred readings from A’s data for similar advisory

• Example - Wildlife Monitoring: Sensors S1 and S3 infer fire event E2 without

direct measurement (Figure 5.4(d))
• Introduction to Sensing Considerations
• Objective: Key factors that impact sensor choice in IoT
• Significance: Selection affects feasibility and effectiveness of IoT
deployments
• Key Factors in Choosing IoT Sensors
1.Sensing Range
2.Accuracy and Precision
3.Energy Consumption
4.Device Size
Sensing Range
• Definition: Defines detection fidelity and measurement bounds
• Optimization Approaches:
• Fixed k-coverage: High redundancy, multiple overlapping sensors
• Dynamic k-coverage: Mobile nodes, responsive but costly and terrain-limited
• Examples:
• Proximity sensors (few meters)
• Cameras (tens to hundreds of meters)
• Consideration: Increased range often means higher cost
Accuracy and Precision
• Importance: Critical for specific functional applications, especially industrial

• Consumer vs. Industrial Sensors:

• Consumer Sensors: Low cost, suitable for casual applications, limited accuracy

• Industrial Sensors: High precision (up to 3-4 decimal places), robust for extreme conditions,
but costly

• Example: Standard temperature sensor vs. industrial-grade sensors

Energy Consumption

• Significance: Determines deployment lifespan and maintenance costs

• Challenge: Frequent energy replenishment increases costs and reduces feasibility

• Example Scenario: Sensors deployed on glaciers; maintenance access is limited

• Solution Need: Energy-efficient sensors for remote or inaccessible environments

Device Size
• Importance: Small size is crucial for usability and unobtrusiveness in IoT
applications

• Impact of Size:
• Larger sensors can obstruct regular activities and increase costs

• Smaller sensors (e.g., wearables) integrate seamlessly into daily life

• Example: Wearable sensors for human activity detection – compact, energy-

efficient, and unobtrusive
Conclusion
• Summary: Sensing range, accuracy, energy, and size are critical in IoT sensor
choice

• Key Takeaway: Balancing these factors is essential for effective and sustainable
IoT deployments