TCP opening a connection

and closing a connection

SYN sent from client

SYN/ACK sent from server

ACK sent from client

(1) TCPs three-way handshake in opening a connection

FIN sent from client

FIN/ACK sent from server

ACK sent from client

(2) TCPs three-way handshake in closing a connection

7 Layer OSI Model

OSI Layer Function provided

Application Network application such as file transfer and terminal

emulation
Presentation Data formatting and encryption.

Session Establishment and maintenance of sessions.

Transport Provision for end-to-end reliable delivery.

Network Delivery of packets of information, which includes

routing.
Data Link Transfer of units of information, framing and error
checking.
Physical Transmission of binary data of a medium.
Circuit Switching, Message Switching
and Packet Switching

Circuit Switching : Establishes end-to-end network path before

any data is sent. Network path once set up,
is not shared with other users. Other nodes
have to wait until the transmission is
over to the circuit to be released.

Message Switching : No network path is established. Entire

message is sent to the destination via
network paths that are shared with other
users. Congestions are likely to occur
depending on the size of the message.
Circuit Switching, Message Switching
and Packet Switching

Packet Switching : No network path is established. Messages

are broken down in to smaller size
manageable packets before being sent.
Packets are being sent to the destination
over network paths shared with other
traffic. Destination assembles the packets
retrieving the original message.

Virtual Circuit Switching : Packet switching network that emulates

circuit switching by establishing a
virtual circuit before the packets
are sent. All the packets are
delivered using the same virtual
circuit.
Question 13)

3
2 3
5

2
3 1 6

1 1 2
1 4 5

Find the least cost path from node (1) to node (6)
using forward search algorithm.
 Network : Network is a set of interconnected computers
Local Area Network : A computer network covering a small
geographic area ( usually less than 1 km2 )
Wide Area Network : A computer network that covers a broad
geographic area ( usually a collection of LANs )

Hub : A Hub is used in a wired network to connected Ethernet cables from number of
workstations together. Data packets sent from one machine are connected to rest of the
machines. The each machine check the header for the destination address. The intended
machine retrieves the packet while other machines discard it. Hubs are prone to packet
sniffing attacks. TCP dump/Net stumbler/ Wireshark(Ethereal) – A hub operates on layer 1 :
physical layer

Switch : A switch is a intelligent hub that forwards incoming frames to a specific port that
will take data to its intended destination. Reads the intended MAC address from the received
data frame and determines the forwarding port from the Switching Table and connect the
received frame to the intended port. Switch operates on MAC sub layer of the layer 2 : the
data link layer.

A network switch constructs its switching table by

extracting the source MAC address from the
received frames. If the entry does not exist the
switch will forward the frames to all its ports.
Prone to ARP poisoning attacks. Cain and Able
Bridge : A bridge is used to partition busy networks into several
collision domains. Bridge operates on the MAC layer, sub layer of the
layer 2 (data link layer). Bridge reads the destination MAC address
from the frame header and decides which partition the frame should
be relayed to.
Once switched on the bridge learns which computer is connected in
each collision domain. The learning process occurs as the bridge
encounters traffic. The bridge extracts the source MAC address from
received frames to determine collision domain that the extracted MAC
address is connected to and constructs a bridging table. If the
bridging table doesn’t have an entry for the MAC address, bridge will
forward the frame to all the domains connected.

Computer B
Router : A router is an internetworking device commonly used to
connect different network types together. A router has two or more
interface, each interface connecting a different network type and
forwards packets according to its destination address. Router can be
seen as a layer 3 switch (network layer ). Router accepts incoming
packets from one network interface and forwards towards its intended
destination. Routers are the basic building block holding the internet
in place. Routers uses IP address instead of MAC addresses and
constructs routing table from the received packets.

Computer A
Modem : A modem is a communication device that converts one form of signal to another
that is suitable for transmission over communication network such as telephone lines, typically
from digital to analogue and from analogue to digital.
Sending time - 
Time to detect collision - 2
Transmitted frame length - T
Propagation delay to frame length ratio - a  T
Number of retries needed - K
Therefore average time for transmitting one frame - tv
tv T    2K
T   1 2 K  Utilization factor - U T tv
T 1   T 1  2 K 
U T tv 1 1  a1  2 K 
T 1  a1  2 K 
 Wireless LAN - A computer network covering a small
geographic area that communicates with each other
without wires (wireless)
Advantages of wireless LAN -
Increased mobility of users
Increased flexibility
Instant networking
Availability of LAN technology

Disadvantages of wireless LAN -

Higher cost
Lower performance
Lower reliability
Multiple standards
Poor security (WEP-Wired Equivalent Privacy- open system authentication- no real authentication but
clients need correct key to encrypt data, shared key authentication – shared key authentication can easily
be cracked)
WPA- Wifi Protected Access – can be cracked passively or actively. Needs several thousand
authentication packets to crack pre shared key. Alternatively you send deauthentication signals to
existing clients, forcing them to reauthenticate with the AP, accelerating the cracking process.
 Criteria for LAN Design

Functionality – Speed and Reliability, The network must work with reasonable
speed and reliability
Scalability – Ability to grow without major changes, The network must be able
to grow without any major changes to the overall design
Adaptability – Easily implements new technologies, The network should include
no element that would limit the use of new technologies as they
become available
Manageability – Facilitates monitoring and ease of Management, The network
must be able to allow ease of monitoring and managing
7 Layer OSI Model

OSI Layer Function provided

Application Network application such as file transfer and terminal

emulation
Presentation Data formatting and encryption.

Session Establishment and maintenance of sessions.

Transport Provision for end-to-end reliable delivery.

Network Delivery of packets of information, which includes

routing.
Data Link Transfer of units of information, framing and error
checking.
Physical Transmission of binary data of a medium.
 IP addresses
IP Address is 32 bits in length and consists of two parts, prefix denoting network
id. and suffix denoting host id. Since internet might include networks including
from few computers to hundreds of thousands we divide the 32 bit IP address
space into three primary classes with different prefix and suffix sizes
Net id 01234 8 16 24 31

Class A 0 prefix suffix

Primary
1 0 prefix suffix
Class B Classes

Class C 1 1 0 prefix suffix

1 1 1 0 multicast address
Class D

1 1 1 1 Reserved for future use

Class E
 Multicast addresses : To use IP multicasting set of hosts must agree to share a
multicast address. Once the multicast group has been established, a copy of any packet
sent to the multicast address will be delivered to each host in the set.

Although IP addresses are 4-octets, 32 bit numbers we generally represent each

octet by its decimal value separated by a dot. This is known as dotted decimal
notation.

32 bit binary number Dotted decimal notation

10000000 00001010 00000010 00000011 128 . 10 . 2 . 3

The class of the network must be identified from the first octet.

Class Range of Values

A 0 through 127
B 128 through 191
C 192 through 223
D 224 through 239
E 240 though 255
 IP Address designing parameters
Maximum Number
Maximum Number
Address Class Bits in Prefix Bits in Suffix of Hosts in the
of Networks
Network
A 7 128 24 16777216
B 14 16384 16 65536
C 21 2097152 8 256

Subnet Masking
Rather than allocating address blocks in eight bit boundaries, which in certain cases could be a
waste of address space, arbitrary prefix and suffix lengths are introduced using a subnet mask.
Subnet mask is a 32 bit number in which left hand side ones correspond to prefix and right hand
side zeros correspond to suffix.

IP Address 128.10.2.3 10000000 00001010 00000010 00000011

Subnet Mask 255.255.255.0 11111111 11111111 11111111 00000000

Prefix – first 24 bits – 128.10.2. This corresponds to a class C network

Suffix – last 8 bits - 3
CIDR : Classless Inter-Domain Routing

Rather than allocating address blocks in eight bit boundaries forcing 8, 16, 24 bit prefixes, it
uses arbitrary length prefixes.
CIDR Notation 192.168.0.3 / 16 Prefix length in bits

32bit IP address

*** Example :- Consider a private intranet of a large organization which consists of 4 physical networks.
One small, two medium sized and one extremely large network. Design suitable IP address
scheme.

Medium sized network 1 Medium sized network 2

128.11.0.2
128.11.0.1
128.10.0.1 128.10.0.2
Large Network

Small network

10.10.0.1 10.10.0.2
192.168.0.1 192.168.0.2
ARP : Address Resolution Protocol

ARP is the standard method of finding out hosts layer 2 MAC address when only its
layer 3 IP address is known. If host ‘A’ needs to send a a data packet to host ’B’,
host ‘A’ broadcasts ARP request packet containing ‘A’s MAC address. Host ‘B’
upon receiving the ARP request replies with its MAC address directly (unicast) to
host ‘A’ while other stations discard the ARP request. Host ‘A’ now having the MAC
address of host ‘B’ can directly send the data packet.

RARP : Reverse Address Resolution Protocol

RARP is the reverse process of ARP. It’s the process of finding out the layer 3 network address from
layer 2 MAC address. RARP was subsequently replaced by DHCP.

DHCP : Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

DHCP is a protocol used by clients to obtain various necessary parameters for its operation. DHCP
allows clients to be configured automatically over the network. New machines can be added to the
network more easily. Less chance of error.

DNS : Domain Name System

DNS associates domain names with difficult to remember IP address. Mapping domain name to an
IP address is called domain name translation. When a host requires a domain name translation it
makes a request to its assigned DNS server.
WiMax, WLAN and Bluetooth Comparison

802.15
802.16a 802.11
Parameters (Bluetoo
(WiMax) (WLAN)
th)
Frequency Band 2-11GHz 2.4GHz Varies

~100meter ~10meters
Range ~31miles
s
20Kbps –
11 Mbps – 55 Mbps
Data transfer rate 70 Mbps
55 Mbps

Dozens
Number of Users Thousands Dozens
 Aloha System
ALOHA was a pioneering computer networking system developed at the University
of Hawaii. Although the network itself is no longer used, the ALOHA project is quite
important as one of the core concepts in the ALOHA net is the basis for widely used
Ethernet technology.

Aloha key concept : If you have data send data. If the message collides try
resending the data later. The waiting time must be random
or the same frames will collide over and over again, in a
deadlock.

N – Number of frames generated by all the users connected per frame time

G – Total Number of frames generated per frame time (New and retransmitted) G ≥ N
G is also known as the channel traffic

S – Channel throughput per frame time, number of successful transmission per frame time

Channel throughput is equal to number of total packets generated in the system per
given time into the probability of a frame does not suffer collision
 Aloha Capacity
S – Channel throughput per frame time, number of successful transmission per frame time

Channel throughput is equal to number of total packets generated in the system per
given time into the probability of a frame does not suffer collision

P0 – Probability of a frame does not suffer collision

S=G. P0 If (number of users connected) → ∞, N and G takes

the shape of Poisson distribution. P0 = e-2G

Therefore S = G.e-2G
 Aloha Capacity
S – Channel throughput per frame time, number of successful transmission per frame time

Channel throughput is equal to number of total packets generated in the system per
given time into the probability of a frame does not suffer collision

P0 – Probability of a frame does not suffer collision

S=G. P0 If (number of users connected) → ∞, N and G takes

the shape of Poisson distribution. P0 = e-2G

Therefore S = G.e-2G
Capacity is the maximum throughput

We can see the throughput is maximum at G = 0.5

S=0.5 x e-2x0.5 = 0.1839

The channel Utilization is Approximately 18%

 Slotted Aloha
Slotted Aloha divides the time into discrete time intervals, each interval corresponding to
one frame time. Rather than trying to send data at any given time, users are forced to
send data only at the beginning of a time slot. This minimises probability of collision and
increase the channel throughput. The users must know the beginning of the time slot to
begin transmitting data. The system uses a pilot signal to inform the workstations of the
beginning of the time slot.

The channel throughput S=G. P0 In slotted Aloha the probability of

frame not colliding improves P0 = e-G

Therefore S = G.e-G

We can see the throughput is maximum at G = 1

Capacity is the maximum throughput

S=1 x e-1 = .368

The channel Utilization is Approximately 37%

The channel capacity doubles

 Capacity is the maximum throughput

We can see the throughput is

maximum at G = 0.5

S=0.5 x e-2x0.5 = 0.1839

The channel Utilization is Approximately 18%

If an ALOHA system has a total generated capacity of 14400 bits/s,

a.) Compute the maximum capacity a pure ALOHA system can reach
b.) Compute the maximum capacity a slotted ALOHA system can reach
Pure ALOHA system has a utilization factor of 18%, and therefore can reach a
maximum capacity of 14400x0.1839 = 2648 bits/s

Pure ALOHA system has a utilization factor of 37%, and therefore can reach a
maximum capacity of 14400x0.386 = 5558 bits/s