Chapter 2

Basic Laws

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 Basic Laws - Chapter 2

2.1 Ohm’s Law.

2.2 Nodes, Branches, and Loops.
2.3 Kirchhoff’s Laws.
2.4 Series Resistors and Voltage Division.
2.5 Parallel Resistors and Current Division.
2.6 Wye-Delta Transformations.

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 Chapter 2
Introduction
•Circuit analysis is the process of determining the
voltage across (or current through) the elements of
the circuit.
•Current and voltage are the two basic variables in
electric circuits.
•basic concepts such as current, voltage, and power
in an electric circuit.
•To actually determine the values of these variables
in a given circuit requires that we understand some
fundamental laws that govern electric circuits.
• These laws, known as Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s
laws. 3
 Introduction Cont…
• To govern electrical circuits introduced
common two of the Circuit Elements
• Resistor: is an element that resists the
flow of electricity.
- Resistors provides resistance
- They oppose the flow of electricity
• Capacitor: is an element that stores
charge for use later.
– They store energy in an electricity field.
– Provides capacitance
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Resistance
Resistance: Basic Concepts and
Assumptions
Resistance

 If we increase the voltage, we increase the current.

 V is promotional to the I.
 The constant of proportionality we call the resistance, R.
V= I * R------------ Ohm’s law
 Units R= V/I, ohms=Volts/Amp and I= V/R
 The amount of resistance does not depends on the
voltage or current. V=IR relates voltage to current.
 If you double the voltage you will double the current, not
change the resistance.
 The amount of resistance depends on the material and
shape of the wires.
Ohms Law

 Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of

resisting the flow of electric charge.
 This physical property, or ability to resist current, is
known as resistance and is represented by the symbol
R.
 The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-
sectional area A depends on A and
its length l.
 2.1 Ohms Law (1)
• Ohm’s law states that the voltage across
a resistor is directly proportional to the
current I flowing through the resistor.

• Mathematical expression for Ohm’s Law

is as follows:
v iR
• Two extreme possible values of R:
0 (zero) and  (infinite) are related
with two basic circuit concepts: short
circuit and open circuit.
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 where ρ is known as the resistivity of the material in ohm-
meters.
 Good conductors, such as copper and aluminum, have
low resistivity's While insulators, such as mica and paper,
have high resistivity's.

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Ohm’s Law
Ohms Law

 Ohm’s law states that the voltage v across a resistor

is directly proportional to the current i flowing through
the resistor. v ∝ I

 Ohm defined the constant of proportionality for a

resistor to be the resistance, R. (The resistance is a
material property which can change if the internal or
external conditions of the element are altered, e.g., if
there are changes in the temperature.)
 The resistance R of an element denotes its
ability to resist the flow of electric current; it is
measured in ohms.
Resistors & Passive Sign Convention
Other Eq. derived from Ohm’s Law
Example: Ohm’s Law
An electric iron draws 2 A at 120 V. Find its resistance.
Short Circuit as Zero Resistance
Short Circuit as Voltage Source (0V)
Open Circuit
Open Circuit as Current Source (0 A)
 2.1 Ohms Law (2)
• Conductance is the ability of an element to
conduct electric current; it is the reciprocal of
resistance R and is measured in mhos or
siemens.
1 i
G 
R v

• The power dissipated by a resistor:

2
v
p vi i 2 R 
R

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Conductance
G= i/R , V= iR , p=vi

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Circuit Building Blocks
2.2 Nodes, Branches and Loops
(1)
• A branch represents a single element such as a
voltage source or a resistor.
• A node is the point of connection between two
or more branches.
• A loop is any closed path in a circuit.

• A network with b branches, n nodes, and l

independent loops will satisfy the fundamental
theorem of network topology:
b l  n  1
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Branches
Nodes, branch & loop

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loops

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2.2 Nodes, Branches and Loops
(2)
Example 1

Original circuit

Equivalent circuit

How many branches, nodes and loops are there?

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• For example, the closed path abca
containing the 2 resistor in Fig. 2.11
is a loop.
• Another loop is the closed path bcb
containing the 3-resistor and the
current source.
• Although one can identify six loops in
Fig. 2.11, only three of them are
independent.
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2.2 Nodes, Branches and Loops
(3)
Example 2 Should we consider it as one
branch or two branches?

How many branches, nodes and loops are there?

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Nodes
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Loops
Overview of Kirchhoff’s
Laws
Kirchhoff’s Current Law
Kirchhoff’s Current Law for Boundaries
 Cont…
• At any instant the algebraic sum of
the currents flowing into any junction
in a circuit is zero

I1 – I2 – I3 = 0
I2 = I1 – I3
= 10 – 3
=7A

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KCL - Example

* Three or more elements connected

 2.3 Kirchhoff’s Laws (1)
• Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the
algebraic sum of currents entering a node (or
a closed boundary) is zero.

N
Mathematically, i
n 1
n 0
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 2.3 Kirchhoff’s Laws (2)
Example 4

• Determine the current I for the circuit shown in

the figure below.

I + 4-(-3)-2 = 0
I = -5A

This indicates that

the actual current
for I is flowing
in the opposite
We can consider the whole direction.
enclosed area as one “node”. 44
 2.3 Kirchhoff’s Laws (3)
• Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the
algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed
path (or loop) is zero.

M
Mathematically, v
m 1
n 0
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• At any instant the algebraic sum of
the voltages around any loop in a
circuit is zero
• For example
E – V1 – V2 = 0
V1 = E – V2
= 12 – 7
= 5V

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 For the circuit find voltage v1 and v2

Solution:
To find v1 and v2, we apply Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s
voltage law Assume that current i flows through the loop
From Ohm’s law,

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 2.3 Kirchhoff’s Laws (4)
Example 5

• Applying the KVL equation for the circuit of the

figure below.

va-v1-vb-v2-v3 = 0

V1 = IR1 v2 = IR2 v3 = IR3

 va-vb = I(R1 + R2 + R3)

va  vb
I
R1  R2  R3
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 Find the currents and voltages in the circuit

Solution:
We apply Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws. By Ohm’s law,
v1 = 8i1 , v2 = 3i2, v3 = 6i3 (2.8.1)
Since the voltage and current of each resistor are related by
Ohm’s
law as shown, we are really looking for three things: (v1 , v2, v3) or
(i1 , i2, i3). At node a, KCL gives
i1 − i2 − i3 = 0 (2.8.2)
Applying KVL to loop 1 as in Fig. 2.27(b),
−30 + v1 + v2 = 0
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 2.4 Series Resistors and Voltage
Division (1)
• Series: Two or more elements are in series if they
are cascaded or connected sequentially
and consequently carry the same current.

• The equivalent resistance of any number of

resistors connected in a series is the sum of the
individual resistances.
N
Req  R1  R2   R N  Rn
n 1
• The voltage divider can be expressed as
Rn
vn  v
R1  R2   R N 51
Resistors in Series
 2.4 Series Resistors and Voltage
Division (1)
Example 3

10V and 5
are in series

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Definition . Series: Two or more elements are in series if they are cascaded or connected
sequentially and consequently carry the same current.
Definition Parallel: Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same
two nodes and consequently have the same voltage across them.
Elements may be connected in a way that they are neither in series nor in parallel.
Example How many branches and nodes does the circuit in the following gure have? Identify
the elements that are in series and in parallel.

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 2.5 Parallel Resistors and Current
Division (1)
• Parallel: Two or more elements are in parallel if
they are connected to the same two nodes and
consequently have the same voltage across them.

• The equivalent resistance of a circuit with

N resistors in parallel is:
1 1 1 1
   
Req R1 R2 RN

• The total current i is shared by the resistors in

inverse proportion to their resistances. The
current divider can be expressed as: v iReq
in  
Rn Rn
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 2.5 Parallel Resistors and Current
Division (1)
Example 4

2, 3 and 2A
are in parallel

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Resistors in Parallel
Resistors in Parallel
Voltage Divider
Current Divider
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• Situations often arises in circuit
analysis when the resistors neither
parallel nor series.

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 Delta  Wye
Transformations
 Delta  Wye
Transformations
 Example –
Delta  Wye Transformations
 2.6 Wye-Delta Transformations

Delta -> Star Star -> Delta

Rb Rc R1 R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
R1  Ra 
( Ra  Rb  Rc ) R1

Rc R a R1 R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
R2  Rb 
( Ra  Rb  Rc ) R2

Ra Rb R1 R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
R3  Rc 
( Ra  Rb  Rc ) R3
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Circuit Symbols

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