• 8-bit code with 256 symbols and now its very rare
• American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)
• 8-bit code with 128 symbols, American English symbols
• Extended ASCII • Graphics and other symbols
• Unicode • All the languages on planet Computer Organization Central Processing Unit (CPU) • It is brain of the computer where most of the calculations takes place
• Processor has two main units
• Control Unit • Datapath • Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) • Control Unit • Control Unit
• ALU • Operations (+,-,/,x) • Logical (AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR) Central Processing Unit (CPU) System Clock • Synchronizes all the computer operations.
• Processor operating frequency.
• Faster clock speed means the CPU can execute more
instructions each second.
• If computer’s clock speed if 800 MHz, it means it ticks 800
million times per second. • Modern computers have clock speed in Giga Hertz (GHz) Machine Cycles • WhenCPU executes an instruction, it takes a series of steps. The complete series of steps is called machine cycle.
Computer executes million of instructions per second.
Memory • Volatile and non-volatile memories. Memory • Non-volatile memory • Read only memory (ROM) • Basicinput output system (BIOS) • Power on Self Test (POST)
• Volatile memory • Requires power tohold data • Random Access Memory (RAM) • CPU reads data using the address
• Flash Memory • Datais stored using physical switches • Special form of non volatile memory CPU Registers • Temporary storage location used by CPU.
• Number of bits a processor can handle.
Terminology: “32 Bit processor”
• Typical sizes 8,16,32 and 64 bit.
• Thesize of the register is called word size, indicates
the amount of data with which computer can work at any given time. Cache Memory • Very fast memory and have lower access time.
• Holdcommon and most recent data used by
processor.
• Most computer have several level of cache memory.
The BUS •BUS width measured in Bits.
•Speed is tied to system clock.
•Different BUS standards:
• IndustryStandard Architecture (ISA) • Local BUS Connects modems and • Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) sound Connects video cards cards to motherboards • Accelerated Graphics Ports (AGP) • Universal Serial BUS (USB) Connects external devices such as camera, printers and scanners. • IEEE 1394 (Firewire) • PC Card Question
• How can different CPUs be compared?
• Clock Speed • MIPS • FLOPs
• What factors affects the CPU speed?
• Registers • Cache Memory • System and I/O BUS • System Clock Operating System • What is an Operating System?
•A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a
computer and the computer hardware
• What is the purpose of an OS?
• To provide an environment in which a user can execute
programs. • What are the goals of an Operating System?
• The primary goal of an Operating System is to make the computer system convenient to use. Operating System OS Kernel
• The heart of the OS
• Responsible for all the essential operations like managing
resources, task scheduling, etc.
• Also contains low-level HW interfaces.
• Size important, as it is memory-resident
Core Tasks of OS
• Processor management • Memory management • Device management • Storage management • Application Interface • User Interface Process Management
• Various programs compete for the attention of the microprocessor.
• TheOS plays the role of the honest referee, making sure that each application gets the necessary attention required for its proper execution.
• It tries to optimally manages the limited processing capacity of the microprocessor to the greatest good of all the users & apps Memory Management
• Straight forward for a single-user, single tasking
• The OS ensures that:
• each application has enough private memory • applications do not run into other application’s private memory.
• TheOS is responsible for efficient utilization of hierarchical
system memory (e.g. RAM, cache, etc.). Device Management
• Applications talk to devices through the OS and OS talks to and manages devices through device drivers
• Example: When we print to a laser printer, we do not
need to know its details. All we do is to tell the printer device driver about what needs to be printed and it takes care of the details Storage Management
•A file system is a collection of directories, subdirectories,
and files organized in a logical order
• TheOS is responsible for maintaining the file system
through indexing of filenames and their disk location.
• The OS can find any file in a logical and timely fashion
Application Interface
• Application developers do not need to know much about the hardware
• TheOS provides all applications with a straight-forward and
consistent interface to hardware
• Example: An application uses the OS to store data on the
disk drive without knowing exact physical characteristics of the disk. User Interface • Users communicate with the computer using a user interface provided by the OS
• Command line
• Graphical User Interface
Types of OS
• Real-time OS (RTOS) • Small OS, Build into Device, Respond quickly to user input • Single user/Single tasking OS • One user, one task at a time.
• Single user/Multitasking OS • One user, multiple tasks
• Multiuser/Multitasking OS • Many users connect to one computer. PC Operating Systems •DOS •Unix •Windows 95 •Linux •Windows 2000 •Ubuntu •Windows NT •Fedora •Windows XP •Windows 7 •Windows 10 Summary • Text Codes
