Module 1:

Matter, Atomic Structure

and Theory

1
Three States of Matter

state characteristics examples

solid rigid; has a fixed shape and ice, cube, diamond,
volume bat
liquid has a definite volume, but gasoline, water,
takes the shape of its alcohol, blood
container
gas has no fixed volume or air, helium, oxygen
shape; takes the shape and
volume of its container

Professor Dave Explains

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dggHWvFJ8Xs

2
Classification of Matter
Matter

Pure Substance Mixture

Compound Element
chemical
change
Homogeneous Heterogeneous

• Pure Substance = uniform throughout, appears to be one thing (can be

elements or pure compounds)
– pure substance or solutions (homogeneous mixtures)

• Element = can't be broken down by chemical or physical means (see periodic

table)

• Compound= Made of 2 or more elements (e.g., Water)

3
Elements and Compounds
• Substances which can not be broken down into simpler substances
by chemical reactions are called elements
• E.g., O(oxygen), Al (aluminum), Na (sodium), Fe (iron)

• Most substances are chemical combinations of elements. These are

called compounds.
• compounds are made of elements
• compounds can be broken down into elements
• properties of the compound not related to the properties of the
elements that compose it
• same chemical composition at all times
• E.g., water (H2O), sand or glass (SiO2), rust (Fe2O3)

4
Elements

5
Classification of Matter
Matter

Pure Substance Mixture

Compound Element
chemical
change
Homogeneous Heterogeneous

• Homogeneous = uniform throughout, appears to be

one thing e.g., sugar and water

• Heterogeneous = non-uniform, contains regions with

different properties than other regions – can be
separated e.g., oil and water

6
 Pure Substances vs. Mixtures
• Pure Substances
• All samples have the same physical and chemical properties
• Constant Composition  all samples have the same composition
• Homogeneous
• Separate into components (elements, compounds) based on chemical properties
• E.g., water, ice, ethanol, iron,

• Mixtures
• Different samples may show different properties
• Variable composition
• Homogeneous or Heterogeneous
• Separate into components based on physical properties
• E.g., coffee, tea, coca cola, salad dressing

• All mixtures are made of pure substances

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cL6I1O1YHH0&feature=related
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5WlAFh8pz8w&feature=PlayList&p=8100F5A0983F057B&index=29

7
 Identity Each of the following as a Pure
Substance, Homogeneous Mixture or
Heterogeneous Mixture

• gasoline
• homogeneous mixture of organic compounds (benzene, toulene, octane etc.)

• copper metal
• pure substance composed of one element (homogeneous)

• chocolate chip cookies

• heterogeneous mixture of a variety of ingredients

8
 Physical and Chemical Changes
Try the following from Worksheets on Matter

9
Physical and Chemical Properties
Physical properties: description/appearance of a substance ( element,
compound)
• colour, odor, volume, density, state, melting boiling points,
• density (mass/volume), Magnetism, Luster (reflect light), Crystal shape
• Malleability (ability to bend and fold or hammered into new shapes)
• Ductility (ability to draw into another shape e.g., copper rod to wire),
• Refractive index – speed of light in one material compared to a vacuum or air)

Chemical properties: description/characteristic of how a substance (element,

compound) interacts/reacts with another substance.
• propane burns in air at high temperature
• copper turns green in air
• Iron turns rusty
• gas burns in your car
10
Determine if the following are physical or
chemical properties:
• gallium metal melts in your hand
• mercury is a liquid at room temperature
• physical property (change in state,
or melting point)

• platinum is inert
• chemical property
• (does not form a new substance under the described conditions)

• the sky is blue

• physical property

• copper sheets acquire a greenish coating over years

• chemical property (copper reacts with air to form a new substance, which is
green) 11
 Physical and Chemical Changes
• physical changes involve a change in one or more physical properties, but do not affect the
composition of the substance
• most common is the change in state

• chemical changes (also called reactions) result in a change in the fundamental composition of a
substance and leads to the formation of a new substance with a different composition
• Ask yourself these questions
• is the change easily reversed – if yes  physical
• is a new substance made – if yes  chemical

Try the Following Worksheets on Chemical and Physical Changes

.
12
Determine if the following are physical or
chemical changes:
milk turns sour
• chemical change because new substances are formed

wax melted over a flame and then catches fire and burns
• melting is a physical change (change in state)
• burning results in a new substance and represents a
chemical change

13
Matter, Atomic Structure and
Theory
Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808) has 6 major postulates:
Elements are composed of tiny particles called atoms.
All atoms (or isotopes) of an element are identical and have the
same properties..
Atoms can be neither created nor destroyed.
Atoms can combine to form compounds which are made up of
atoms in whole number ratios. Changing the ratios changes the
compounds.
A chemical reaction involves the rearrangement, separation, or
combination of atoms.
•https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dalton#:~:text=John%20Dalton%20FRS%20(%2F%CB
%88d,as%20Daltonism%20in%20his%20honour.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=syi3pXJNe58
14
Matter, Atomic Structure and
Theory
Describe Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808):
• Dalton was largely correct, in his postulates and from
these postulates 3 laws are still widely used today in
modern chemistry as follows:

Three Fundamental Laws of Chemistry

1) Law of Conservation of Mass
2) Law of Definite Proportions
3) Law of Multiple Proportions

15
 Matter, Atomic Structure and
Theory
Describe Dalton’s Atomic Theory and relate to modern atomic theory:
1) Law of Conservation of Mass
•Mass is neither created or destroyed during a chemical reaction​
•This is an important law that we will use later when we are balancing chemical reactions​
•If we take 10 g of materials and react them together you must end up with 10 g of products
•If have 12 g carbon and react it with 32 g of O 2 we will produce 44 g of CO2. (12+32=44)
•If we have 1 C and 2 O atoms reacting together, we will produce a product with 1 C atom and 2 O
atoms.
1 C(s)+ 1 O2(g) → 1 CO2(g)

16
Law of Conservation of Mass

17
 Matter, Atomic Structure and
2) Law of Definite Proportions
Theory
•Recall that basic building block of an element is the atom and that elements combine to form compounds​
•A given compound always contains exactly the same proportion of elements in it based on mass​
•Ratio of masses of elements in the same compound will always be the same​IN THE SAME COMPOUND
•120 g NaCl is composed of 47.33 g Na and 72.90 g Cl​
•Ratio of Na to Cl in NaCl is always regardless of the total mass of NaCl
•Regardless of the mass of NaCl the ratio will always be 1:1.54​

Try​
•Find the mass of Cl given 512 g NaCl and 201.56 g Na? How do I know that I am right?​

Ans 310.4 g Cl
18
 Matter, Atomic Structure and
Theory
3) Law of Multiple Proportions (AKA Proust’s Law)
•Recall that basic building block of an element is the atom and that elements combine to form compounds​
•Law of multiple proportions, statement that when two elements combine with each other to form more than
one compound, the weights of one element that combine with a fixed weight of the other are in a ratio of small
whole numbers – i.e., NO FRACTIONS or DECIMALs
•Law only applies to 2 or more compounds containing the identical elements e.g., CO and CO 2; H2O and H2O2;
FeO, Fe3O4 and Fe2O3; NO, NO2, N2O, N2O4 etc..
•Notice that the ratios are 1: 1 1:2, 2:1, 2:2 3:4 etc.
•https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l-IPd_r7ytw

19
 Matter, Atomic Structure and
Theory
3) Law of Multiple Proportions (AKA Proust’s Law)
•Recall that basic building block of an element is the atom and that elements combine to form compounds​
•Law of multiple proportions, statement that when two elements combine with each other to form more than
one compound, the weights of one element that combine with a fixed weight of the other are in a ratio of small
whole numbers – i.e., NO FRACTIONS or DECIMALs
•Law only applies to 2 or more compounds containing the identical elements e.g., CO and CO 2; H2O and H2O2;
FeO, Fe3O4 and Fe2O3; NO, NO2, N2O, N2O4 etc..
•Notice that the ratios are 1: 1 1:2, 2:1, 2:2 3:4 etc.
•https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l-IPd_r7ytw

20
 Matter, Atomic Structure and
Theory
J.J. Thompson In 1897 Thomson started trying to figure out what
an atom was made of

Thompson found that the atom is made up of

smaller bits of matter called subatomic particles

The three important ones for us are:

the electron
the proton
the neutron (established later)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._J._Thomson 21
The Nature of the Atom
 In 1897, Thomson’s experiments with cathode ray tubes
concluded that that an atom is made of smaller “bits”
of matter called subatomic particles.
 The three most important subatomic particles to study
chemistry are:
 the electron, which is negatively charged.
 the proton, which is positively charged.
 the neutron, which has no charge or is neutral (the
neutron was established later by Chadwick).
Matter, Atomic Structure and
Theory
Ernest Rutherford
• Rutherford in 1911 developed an
experiment which helped to
establish the structure of the atom,
called Rutherford Backscattering
• Some of his groundbreaking work
was done at McGill University in
Montreal in 1905

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford

23
The Structure of the Atom
 In 1911, Rutherford developed an experiment involving gold foil which helped to
establish the structure of the atom.
 Essentially:
 There is a dense core in an atom called the nucleus.
 This nucleus contains the atom’s protons and is therefore positively charged.
 The nucleus also contains the neutrons. The neutrons help to stabilize the nucleus
which would otherwise not be stable because the protons would repel each other.
 Outside the nucleus is “empty space”. Electrons are found within this empty space.
 The atom is neutral. This means that the number of protons equals the number of
electrons in an atom.
 Matter, Atomic Structure and
Theory
• Rutherford in 1911 fired heavy particles at a very thin gold foil and
found that a very small fraction of the particles were striking something
very hard and heavy, while most travelled the foil with no change in
direction.
• What he found:
• there was a dense core in an atom called the nucleus
• This core was positively charged
• It also contains the neutrons
• Outside of the nucleus is empty space
• negatively charged particles were found here
• The atom is neutral
• Rutherford Scattering and the Plum-Pudding Model
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-4Us5PTb4J8 (6:3) – better
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fNWfYIv2PxA (1:47)

25
Matter, Atomic Structure and
Theory

In the upper diagram, the particles are

passing the vast space of the virtually
empty atom undisturbed.

In the lower plum pudding model, the

heavy particle is reflecting off or
bouncing back from hitting the nucleus
or the plum.

26
 Matter, Atomic Structure and
Theory
• After the work of many scientists in the early 1900, we had a pretty
good idea of the matter and atomic structure
• The 3 common things we need to know about are: electrons, neutrons
and protons

27
 Matter, Atomic Structure and
Theory
• The nucleus is composed of the protons – positive charge and the neutrons. Since
we are trying to cram all the positive particles in one place, they are going to try
and repel each other.
• Neutrons are the atomic glue that hold the nucleus together and prevent the
positive charges from destroying the nucleus
• Electrons can be added or removed from the atom to provide charge neutrality or
a slight positive (cations) or negative charge (anions)

28
 Matter, Atomic Structure and
Theory

Z  p defines the element, e.g., 6.is carbon

A  p  n; e.g., for C 6  6 12
e  p  Q; e.g., for C 4 6  (4) 2 electrons (Q must have its correct charge)

29
Matter, Atomic Structure and
Theory
• Elements are arranged in the periodic
table in th order of increasing atomic
number Z .
• The atomic number Z is the number
of protons (#p)
Z=#p
• In a neutral atom (with no charge) the
number of electrons (#e)
i.e., #e= Z = #p

Example: For Nitrogen atom,

• Z= 7= # p
• #p=#e= 7

30
 Matter, Atomic Structure and
Theory
Isotopes are atoms that have the:
• Same #protons
• So the same atomic number
• But different #neutrons
• So different mass number
• They have essentially the same chemical properties but slightly different physical
properties.

31
 Matter, Atomic Structure and
Theory

• Find the number of protons, neutrons and electrons for the three
isotopes of carbon?

C-12 , 6 protons, 6 neutrons, 6 electrons

C-13 , 6 protons, 7 neutrons, 6 electrons
C-14 , 6 protons, 8 neutrons, 6 electrons

32
 Matter, Atomic Structure and
Theory
An atom has 14 protons and 20 neutrons.

A. Its atomic number is

1) 14 2) 16 3) 34
B. Its mass number is
1) 14 2) 16 3) 34
C. The element is
1) Si 2) Ca 3) Se
Answer: A.1, B.3, C.1
33
 Matter, Atomic Structure and
Theory

Z  p defines the element, e.g., 6.is carbon

A  p  n; e.g., for C 6  6 12
e  p  Q; e.g., for C 4 6  (4) 2 electrons (Q must have its correct charge)

34
Try: worksheet on nuclides

35
 Matter, Atomic Structure and
Theory
Categorize elements according to their position in the periodic table:

36
 Matter, Atomic Structure and
Theory
Categorize elements according to their position in the periodic table:

Typically the properties of the elements are based on how the

electrons are arranged in the periodic table.

There is a pattern of how the electrons fill the table such that elements
in the same column (Group) have similar properties

37
Electron Arrangements in an Atom
 Every electron occupies a specific energy level within an atom. These energy levels are
known as shells.
 Shells may be divided into sublevels, known as orbitals.
 Some orbitals are divided further into subtypes with different spatial arrangements.
 This means that there is an organizational level of orbitals and orbital subtypes within
an atom where electrons are found.
 Each orbital or orbital subtype can only occupy two electrons.
 Electrons that are found closer to the nucleus are more stable.
 This means they have a lower energy.
Shells
 Electrons are found in specific areas
outside of the nucleus called shells.
 Shells increase in size as you move away
from the nucleus.
 Each shell:
 Has a specific energy level.
 Is identified by a number called the Principal
Quantum number. This number is
represented by the letter n; n starts at 1 (the
first shell) and increases by 1.
 n = 1 is therefore the first shell and is closest
to the nucleus.
 The maximum number of electrons in a
shell = 2n2.
Orbitals
 Shells contains subshells known as orbitals to
accommodate electrons.
 The number of orbitals in a shell = n (the shell number) as
shown in the diagram to the right. The larger the shell, the
more orbitals.
 Each orbital has a specific shape and energy and is known
by a specific letter designation as shown to the right.
 Orbitals beginning with p can be further subdivided into
subtypes or sub-orbitals as shown in the diagram. The sub-
orbitals have different spatial arrangements but have the
same energy.
 All electrons in each orbital or sub-orbital have the same
energy.
 The s- and p-Orbitals

Each s-orbital can accommodate a There are 3 p-orbitals with different special orientations, but they all have the
maximum of 2 spin-paired electrons. same energy. Each p-orbital accommodate a maximum of two spin-paired
All shells have an s-orbital. electrons. The p-orbitals are first encountered in n = 2.
So how are electrons arranged in an
atom?
 Electron configurations show the
placement of the electrons in the
orbitals in order of increasing
energy.
 The placement of electrons
follows a specific order of energy
as shown in the diagrams to the
right.
 Electrons are added one at a time
into each orbital or suborbital (p
or higher) before the second
electron is added.
 Each orbital or sub-orbital can
hold a maximum of two electrons
with opposite spins (spin-paired).
 Electron Configurations
 Count the total number of electrons in the atom or the ion.
Fill them in the orbitals by following rules on previous slide.
 List shells and orbital types as a number and a letter
respectively starting with 1s.
 Use superscript numbers to represent the total number of
electrons in each type of orbital.
 Example: Carbon atom. 6 electrons 1s22s22p2

 Abbreviated electron configurations: use the last noble gas

element in square brackets, and then show the remaining
orbitals and electrons.
 So carbon’s electron configuarution can also be
written as [He]2s22p2.
 Electron configurations
• Try the worksheet on electron configurations

44
Core and Valence Electrons
 An atom has core and valence electrons.
 Valence electrons are found in the outermost energy shells and
are farthest away from the nucleus.
 In electron configurations, valence electrons are associated with
the highest value of n.
 Remember: Valence electrons = Group Number. We will only
focus on the “A” groups in this Module.
 Valence electrons are responsible for all chemical reactions
and are therefore involved in chemical bonding.
 The remaining electrons, or core electrons, are found close to
the nucleus.
 Core electrons are not involved in chemical reactions.

https://slideplayer.com/slide/13012116/
 Valence Electrons
Valence electrons are found in the outermost energy levels
orbitals. Predictions of valence electrons for ions can be
easily found in the periodic table – the Group or column
predicts the number of valence electrons

46
 Matter, Atomic Structure and
Theory
Electron Dot Symbols

The electron-dot symbols are used to show the valence

electrons each element has. They use the element symbol
and one dot for each valence electron.

Steps:
• Determine the # of valence electrons using group numbers
• Distribute dots around the element symbol, one at a time
first, before pairing

47
Lewis Dot(Electron) diagram
 The number of dots around each atom is equal to the number of valence
electrons the atom has.
• Remember: the number of valence electrons is the group number.
 A Lewis structure shows the bonds between atoms and helps us to visualize the
arrangement of atoms in a molecule.

 Draw the Lewis Dot diagram for Nitrogen atom

More Lewis /Electron Dot Diagrams
• For quick graphical purposes, or electron counting –we write the
element symbol and represent the valence electrons with dots
around it.
Li [He]2s1
Be [He] 2s2
Na [Ne] 3s1
Mg [Ne] 3s2
K [Ar] 4s1
Ca [Ar] 4s2

49
 Matter, Atomic Structure and
Theory
The Periodic Table
• By the late 1800’s, chemists began to notice that certain elements
looked and behaved similarly

• Used this to begin to arrange elements according to their similarities

into groups or families

• Eventually put these groups into a chart called the periodic table
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zg6KeXsDVwY&list=PLi01XoE8jY
oi5fLBY64f6ZUuktgTFb2H3&index=1

50
The Periodic Table & Electron
Configurations
• Electron configurations are related to chemical properties and
therefore the periodic table

51
 Matter, Atomic Structure and
Theory
The Modern Periodic Table

52
 Matter, Atomic Structure and
Theory
Some Interesting Facts about the Periodic Table

• Originally up to uranium (92) were known

• Now periodic table contains 118 elements which have been found or
synthesized
• How are elements created? https://youtu.be/cma-AjOUplU

53
 Matter, Atomic Structure and
Some Periodic Trends
Theory
Group Numbers and Valence Electrons
• Valence electrons are the electrons in the highest energy level (shell)

 The electrons furthest from the nucleus

 These electrons are the ones that interact when atoms get close to one
another

 Determine the chemical properties of the elements.

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0h8q1GIQ-H4 (24 min)
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hePb00CqvP0 (8 min) – Professor Dave
Explains 54
 Matter, Atomic Structure and
Theory
Describe periodic trends such as atomic size, ionization energy, and
electronegativity:
↑ IE ↑EN ↓AR

↓IE
↓EN
↑AR

IE: ionization energy

EN: electronegativity 55
 Periodic Trends
Definitions

Atomic Radius: It is one-half the distance between nuclei of identical bonded elements

Ionization Energy: The energy (in kJ) required to remove completely 6.022x1023 electrons from the gaseous atoms
or ions. The first ionization energy is the removal of 1 electron.

Electron Affinity: The energy change (in kJ) to add 6.022x1023 electrons to gaseous atoms or ions.

Electronegativity: The relative ability of a bonded atom to attract shared electrons. When electrons are shared
between atoms, if the electronegativity difference is large, the electrons will be found closer to the more
electronegative elements.

Electronegativity difference (∆EN): The difference in electronegativies between the atoms in a bond.
56
Atomic Size

Atomic radius
• distance from the nucleus to the valence electrons
Let’s look at the periodic table
• What happens to the # of electrons in an element as we go
down a group?
• What about when we go across a period?
• Think about the interaction between the nucleus and the
electrons

57
So the trend?

Atomic Size:
 Increases going down each group of representative elements.
 Decreases going across each period.

58
In summary

59
Examples…

Try
Select the element in each pair with the larger atomic
radius.
A. Li or K
B. K or Br
C. P or Cl

List the following elements from smallest to largest:

Ca, Mg, Sr, Be

60
Ionization Energy

 Is the energy it takes to remove a valence electron from an

atom in the gas phase.

Let’s look at the periodic table again…

• As we go down a group what is happening to the valence
electrons?
• And as we go across a period?

61
So the trend is…

Ionization Energy:
• Increases as you go left to right across a period
• Decreases as you go down a group

62
In summary

63
Try…
Select the element in each pair with the higher
Ionization energy.
A. Li or K
B. K or Br
C. P or Cl

64
Electronegativity

• The ability of an atom in a molecule to attract electrons to itself

• We will discuss this one later but it is a periodic trend:
• As we move down a group EN decreases
• As we move across a period EN increases

65
Electronegativity

66
Summary:

↑ IE ↑EN ↓AR

↓IE
↓EN
↑AR

IE: ionization energy

EN: electronegativity
AR: atomic radius
67