Course Objectives:

1. Understand the fundamentals of analog and digital

communication systems.
2. Comprehend the various communication systems and
applications.
3. Analysis of source and channel coding theorems
Course Outcomes
1. Demonstrate the concept of modulation.
2. Examine the properties of random processes.
3. Design and analyze transmitters and receivers for analog
communication systems.
4. Assess and contrast shift keying and pulse modulation
techniques.
5. Understanding the concepts of error correcting codes.
Module-1 : Basics of Communication Systems

Communication systems: Importance, elements, block diagram

and role of each block, types; Frequency ranges; Bandwidth;
Need for modulation; Noises in communication systems.
Module-1 : Basics of Communication Systems

Communication systems: Importance, elements, block diagram

and role of each block, types; Frequency ranges; Bandwidth;
Need for modulation; Noises in communication systems.
Text Books

1.B.P. Lathi, Zhi Ding, Modern Digital and Analog Communication

Systems, 2017, 4th Edition, Oxford University Press
2. Simon Haykin, Michael Moher, Introduction to Analog and Digital Communications,
2012, 2nd Edition, Wiley India Pvt Ltd, New Delhi
 What is Communications:
• Communication involves the transfer of information from one point to another
• Communication system is a system which describes the exchange of information
or data between two stations, i.e. between transmitter and receiver.

• Four basic elements to transfer the information:

Source: Generates the information (e.g., human voice, video, text).
Transmitter: converts message into a form suitable for transmission.(e.g.,
microphone, modem).
Channel: Medium that carries the signal, the physical medium, introduces
distortion, noise, interference(e.g., air, cables, optical fibers).
 Receiver: reconstruct a recognizable form of the message (e.g., speaker,
screen).
(e.g., speaker, screen).
• Illustration
• Example: A phone call:
• Source: Your voice
• Transmitter: Phone microphone
• Channel: Cellular network
• Receiver: Friend’s phone speaker
• Destination: Friend
• Multitude of Communications
• Telephone network
• Internet
• Radio and TV broadcast
• Mobile communications
• Wi-Fi
• Satellite and space communications
• Smart power grid, healthcare…
Types of Signals
Analog Signals: Continuous signals (e.g., radio, telephone).
Digital Signals: Discrete signals (e.g., internet, computer
systems).

Analog communications
– Amplitude modulation (AM), Angle
Modulation{Frequency mod..(FM), Phase mod…(PM)}

• Digital communications
– Transfer of information in digits
– Dominant technology today
– Broadband, 3G, DAB (Digital Audio Broadcasting) and
DVB (Digital Video Broadcasting)
•A

Fig: Communication system

• Communication Channel
• The channel is central to operation of a communication system
– Linear (e.g., mobile radio) or nonlinear (e.g., satellite)
– Time invariant (e.g., fiber) or time varying (e.g., mobile radio)
characteristics (attenuation and delay) mobile receiver or transmitter is
do not change over time in motion, the frequency of the
received signal can be shifted
• The information-carrying capacity of a communication system is proportional
to the channel bandwidth. Frequencies range that a channel can effectively
transmit without significant attenuation or distortion.

• Channel bandwidth (B) is the difference between the highest and lowest
frequencies in the channel's frequency range. It is measured in Hertz (Hz):
• Pursuit for wider bandwidth
– Copper wire: 1 MHz
– Coaxial cable: 100 MHz
– Microwave: GHz
– Optical fiber: THz=1000000000000 Hz
• Importance of Bandwidth
• Data Rate (Shannon-Hartley Theorem): Bandwidth determines the
maximum data rate of a channel. According to the Shannon-Hartley
theorem, the capacity C of a channel is:
• C=B⋅(1+SNR)C
• Where:
• C is the channel capacity in bits per second (bps).
• B is the channel bandwidth in Hz.
• SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio
• Noise in Communications
• Unavoidable presence of noise in the channel
– Noise refers to unwanted waves that disturb communications
– Signal is contaminated by noise along the path.

• External noise: interference from nearby channels, humanmade noise, natural

noise(lightning), Electromagnetic radiation ...

• Internal noise: Noise originates from within the communication system

itself…e.g. thermal noise, random emission, Random fluctuations in the flow of
charge carriers (e.g., in diodes or transistors
•
• Noise is one of the basic factors that set limits on communications.
• A widely used metric is the signal-to-noise (power) ratio
• Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) is a measure of the strength of the desired signal
• Bandwidth and channel power and noise power are the critical aspect of
communication systems and signal processing.
• The noise power is directly proportional to the bandwidth.
• To maintain a fixed SNR as bandwidth increases, the channel power must
also increase proportionally:
• Transmitter and Receiver
• The transmitter modifies the message signal into a form suitable for
transmission over the channel.
• This modification often involves modulation
– Moving the signal to a high-frequency carrier (up-conversion) and
varying some parameter of the carrier wave
– Analog: AM, FM, PM
– Digital: ASK FSK PSK (SK: shift keying) , FSK, PSK (SK: shift keying)

• The receiver recreates the original message by demodulation

– Recovery is not exact due to noise/distortion
– The resulting degradation is influenced by the type of modulation
• Design of analog communication is conceptually simple
• Digital communication is more efficient and reliable; design
is more sophisticated
 Modulation
• There are two types of communication:
a. Baseband communication
b. Passband communication

a. Baseband communication:
• Signal transmission in which the signal is sent without modulation onto a
carrier frequency
• Transmitting the signal in its original frequency range without translating it
to a higher frequency band.
• High attenuation restricts baseband communication
• More susceptible to noise and signal degradation
• Ex: Local Area Networks (LANs): Ethernet cables operate as baseband
systems, Short-range telephone lines etc.
b. Passband communication
• Modulation is a technique in which message signal is transmitted to the receiver with the
help of carrier signal. Here in modulation, we combine both carrier signal and the message
signal.
• Ex: A letter is sent inside the envelope.

• The baseband signal is used to modify some parameter of a high-frequency carrier signal.
• A carrier is a sinusoid of high frequency, and one of its parameters—such as amplitude,
frequency, or phase—is varied in proportion to the baseband signal.
• Example of carrier signal : A cos()
 Why Modulation is Needed?
• Efficient Transmission:
Modulation shifts signals to higher frequencies, making them suitable for long-distance
transmission with reduced attenuation.
• Avoid Signal Overlap:
By modulating different signals to different frequencies, multiple signals can coexist
in a single channel.
• Antenna Size:
Higher frequency signals require smaller antennas, making transmission equipment more
practical. Example: next page
• Overcoming Noise:
High-frequency modulated signals are less susceptible to low-frequency noise.
• Ex: FM radio stations are much clearer and noise-free as compared to AM because
the information is carried by changes in high frequency.
• Compatibility:
Modulation ensures signals can be sent over various mediums like air, fiber optics, or cables.
How to reduce the Antenna Size?
• Accordingly, we have below analog modulation
process:
I. Amplitude modulation (AM)
• Figure shows a baseband signal m(t) and the
corresponding AM and FM waveforms.
• In AM, the carrier amplitude varies in proportion
to m(t), keeping phase and frequency constant.
• Simple to implement but Susceptible to noise
and interference
II. Frequency modulation (FM)
• In FM, the carrier frequency is varied in
proportion m (t) by keeping amplitude constant
Requires a larger bandwidth but more resistant
to noise and interference compared to AM
III. Phase Modulation (PM):
• The phase of the carrier signal is varied in accordance with the message signal. The
amplitude and frequency remain constant.
• Used in digital communications, some types of radio transmission.
• Improved signal clarity.
• More complex than AM and FM.
• Digital modulation:
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK): The phase of the carrier signal is shifted between
two values to represent binary data (0 and 1)
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK): The phase of the carrier is shifted among four
different values, allowing two bits per symbol. 00 → 0°; 01 → 90°, 10 → 180°
11 → 270
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): The amplitude of the carrier is varied to represent
digital data (0 and 1).
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):The frequency of the carrier is varied to represent
• Demodulation:
• Demodulation is the process of extracting the original information or
message signal from the modulated carrier wave. Reverse process of
modulation.
• Analog: Amplitude Demodulation (AM), Frequency Demodulation (FM),
Phase Demodulation (PM)
• Digital: Phase Shift Keying (PSK), Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
(QAM).

• Channel, spectrum, frequency BW, Noise

• Noise:
• Noise in communication signals refers to any unwanted disturbance that interferes
with the transmission or reception of information in a communication system.
• It can cause errors, signal degradation, and loss of data integrity, making
communication unreliable.
• Noise can be present in both analog and digital communication systems
• Types of Noise:
1. Thermal Noise (Johnson-Nyquist Noise):
• Generate due to random motion of electrons in conductors due to temperature.
• The higher the temperature of the conductor, the greater the thermal noise.
• Always present in any electrical component (resistors, capacitors, etc.).
• The noise voltage Vnoise ​across a resistor R at temperature T over a bandwidth Δf is
given by:
2. Shot Noise:
• Arises due to the discrete nature of charge carriers (electrons) moving through
a conductor or semiconductor material (diodes, transistors, and
photodetectors).
• Significant in systems with low currents or small signal levels, such as
photodiodes or semiconductor-based devices.
• The noise current is given by

3. Impulse Noise:
• Caused by short-duration, high-amplitude disturbances(switching devices,
lightning, or power line faults.)
4. Flicker Noise (1/f Noise):
• Due to irregularities in the operation of components, particularly in low-
frequency circuits like amplifiers.
• It has a power spectral density that is inversely proportional to frequency

5. Quantization Noise:
• Occurs when a continuous signal is digitized by an analog-to-digital converter
(ADC).
• The quantization noise power is
 Milestones in
•
Communications
1837, Morse code used in telegraph
• 1864, Maxwell formulated the eletromagnetic (EM)
theory
• 1887, Hertz demonstrated physical evidence of EM
waves
• 1890’s-1900’s, Marconi & Popov, long-distance
radio telegraph
– Across Atlantic Ocean
– From Cornwall to Canada

• 1875, Bell invented the telephone

• 1906, radio broadcast
• 1918, Armstrong invented superheterodyne
radio receiver (and FM in 1933)
• 1921, land-mobile communication
 Milestones (2)
• 1928, Nyquist proposed the sampling
theorem
• 1947, microwave relay system
• 1948, information theory
• 1957, era of satellite communication
began
• 1966, Kuen Kao pioneered fiber-
optical communications (Nobel
Prize Winner)
• 1970’s, era of computer networks
began
• 1981, analog cellular system
• 1988, digital cellular system
debuted in Europe
• 2000, 3G network
• The big 3 telecom manufacturers
 Cellular Mobile Phone
•
Network
A large area is partitioned into
cells
• Frequency reuse to maximize
capacity
 Growth of Mobile
•
Communications
1G: analog
communications
– AMPS (FDMA-FM)
• 2G: digital
communications
– GSM (TDMA)
– IS-95
• 3G: CDMA networks
– WCDMA
– CDMA2000
– TD-SCDMA
• 4G: data rate up to
(OFDM)
1 Gbps (giga bits per
second)
– Pre-4G
 Wi-Fi
• Wi-Fi connects “local” computers (usually
within 100m range)
 IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi Standard
• 802.11b
– Standard for 2.4GHz (unlicensed) ISM band
– 1.6-10 Mbps, 500 ft range
• 802.11a
– Standard for 5GHz band
– 20-70 Mbps, variable range
– Similar to HiperLAN in Europe
• 802.11g
– Standard in 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands
– Speeds up to 54 Mbps, based on orthogonal frequency
division multiplexing (OFDM)
• 802.11n
– Data rates up to 600 Mbps
– Use multi-input multi-output (MIMO)
 IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi Standard
Technique Principle Advantage Challenge Application

Frequency Simple Guard bands waste Satellite,

FDMA
allocation implementation spectrum AMPS

Efficient in
Time slot Needs precise
TDMA resource GSM
allocation synchronization
utilization

Code-based High capacity, Complex 3G

CDMA
separation secure encoding/decoding networks

Subcarrier Robust against High computational Wi-Fi, LTE,

OFDM
multiplexing channel fading complexity 4G/5G
 Satellite/Space
•
Communication
Satellite communication
– Cover very large areas
– Optimized for one-way
transmission
• Radio (DAB) and movie
(SatTV) broadcasting
– Two-way systems
• The only choice for remote-area
and maritime communications
• Propagation delay (0.25
s) is uncomfortable in
voice communications
• Space communication
– Missions to Moon, Mars,
…
– Long distance, weak
signals
– High-gain antennas
– Powerful error-control
coding
 Future Wireless Networks
Ubiquitous Communication Among People and Devices
Wireless Internet
access Nth
generation Cellular
Ad Hoc Networks
Sensor Networks
Wireless
Entertainment Smart
Homes/Grids
Automated Highways
All this and more…
•Hard Delay
Constraints
•Hard Energy
Constraints
 Communication Networks
• Today’s communications networks are
complicated systems
– A large number of users sharing the medium
– Hosts: devices that communicate with each other
– Routers: route date through the network
 Concept of Layering
• Partitioned into layers, each doing a relatively
simple task
• Protocol stack

Networ
Applicatio
k
n
Transport
Network
Link
Physica
Physical l
TCP/IP
protocol stack
OSI Model (Internet) 2-layer
model
Communication Systems mostly deals with the physical
layer, techniques
some but (e.g., coding) can also be applied to the
network layer. 2
4
 Outline
• Probability
– How probability is defined
– cdf and pdf
– Mean and
variance Joint
distribution
– Central limit
theorem
• Random
processes
– Definition
– Stationary
random
processes
– Power spectral
density
• References
– Notes of
 Why Probability/Random
•
Process?
Probability is the core mathematical tool for
communication theory.
• The stochastic model is widely used in the
study of communication systems.
• Consider a radio communication system where the
received signal is a random process in nature:
– Message is random. No randomness, no information.
– Interference is random.
– Noise is a random process.
– And many more (delay, phase, fading, ...)
• Other real-world applications of probability and
random processes include
– Stock market modelling, gambling (Brown motion as
shown in the previous slide, random walk)…
 Probabilistic Concepts
• What is a random variable (RV)?
– It is a variable that takes its values from the outputs of
a random experiment.
• What is a random experiment?
– It is an experiment the outcome of which cannot be
predicted precisely.
– All possible identifiable outcomes of a random
experiment constitute its sample space S.
– An event is a collection of possible outcomes of the
random experiment.
• Example
– For tossing a coin, S = { H, T }
– For rolling a die, S = { 1, 2, …, 6 }
 Probability Properties
• PX(xi): the probability of the random variable X
taking on the value xi
• The probability of an event to happen is a non-
negative number, with the following properties:
– The probability of the event that includes all possible
outcomes of the experiment is 1.
– The probability of two events that do not have any
common outcome is the sum of the probabilities of
the two events separately.
• Example
– Roll a die: PX(x = k) = 1/6 for k = 1, 2, …, 6