Machine Design

ME - 211

Dr. Sujeet Kumar Mishra

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Birla Institute of Technology
(In the service of the Nation since 195
(A Deemed University)
Mesra, Ranchi – 835 215 India

E-mail: sujeetmishra@bitmesra.ac.in
Mobile No: 9431927250
 SYLLABUS (ME – 211 Machine Design)
Module –I
Failure of materials: Principles of Machine Design, standardization, Tolerances, Design against static and fluctuating loads, Theories of failures,
Design of cotter joint and knuckle joint, Fatigue failure, Endurance limit, Notch Sensitivity, Gerber, Soderberg, Goodman, and Modified
Goodman criteria, Design against combined loads.. (8L)

Module –II
Design of threaded, welded, and riveted joints: Threaded joints: Basic types of screw fastening, Bolt of uniform strength, Terminology of screw
threads, Bolt under tension, Welded joints: Butt joints, Fillet joints, Strength of butt and fillet welds. Riveted joints: Types of rivet heads, types of
rivet joints, Strength equations, Efficiency of joint, Caulking and fullering, Eccentrically loaded bolted, riveted and welded joints. (8L)

Module – III
Design of brakes and clutches: Types of Brakes and Clutches, Clutch/Brake selection and specification, Clutch and Brake materials, Disc
Clutches, Shoe, Band and Disk Brakes. (8L)

Module – IV
Design of springs and bearing: Spring configuration, Spring materials, Design of helical compression/extension springs. Bearings, Types of sliding
contact bearings, Bearing materials, Lubricating oils, Petroff’s equation, Mckee’s Investigation, Hydrostatic bearing, Rolling contact bearings.
(8L)

Module –V
Design of Gears: Types of gear, Terminology of gear, standard systems of gear tooth, Force analysis of spur, helical, bevel, and worm gears, Beam
and wear strength of gears, Lewis and Buckingham’s equation, Effective load on spur gear tooth. (8L)

Text Books:
1. Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, by Richard Budynas (Author), Keith Nisbett (Author)
2. Introduction to Machine Design by V. B. Bhandari
3. Machine Design by Khurmi
Reference Books:
1. Machine Design, An Integrated Approach by Robert L. Norton, Second Edition.
2. Machine Design Data Handbook by K. Lingaiah
3. Mechanical Design of Machine Components by Ansel C. Ugural
Machine design is defined as the use of scientific principles,
Technical information & imagination in the description of a
machine or a mechanical system to perform specific functions
with maximum economy & efficiency.

 Basic Principles
Newton’s law of motion, Alembert's Principle, Bernoulli's principles
 Technical Information of the basics of a machine

Fastening devices, chain, belt and gear drives, bearings, oil seals, springs, shafts, keys, couplings etc.
 Designer skill and imagination

To produce a configuration which is a combination of these basic elements

 Description of machine

In the form of drawings of assembly and individual components

 Specific function with maximum economy and efficiency

To satisfy a recognized need of customer

Design Process
Basic requirements of Machine Elements

Strength
Rigidity
Wear Resistance
Minimum Dimensions & Weight
Manufacturability
Safety
Conformance to standards
Reliability
Maintainability
Minimum Life-cycle Cost
Basic procedure of Design of Machine Element
 Use of Standard in Design

Standardization is the obligatory norms, to which various characteristics

of a product should conform. The characteristics include materials,
dimensions and shape of the component, method of testing and method
of marketing, packing and storing of the product.

Following standards are used in Mechanical Engineering

Design

i) Standards for materials, their chemical compositions, Mechanical

properties & heat treatment
ii) Standards for shapes and dimensions of commonly used machine
elements
iii) Standards for fits, tolerances and surface finish of component
iv) Standards for testing of products
v) Standards for engineering drawing of components
Ergonomic considerations in Design
The word ergonomics is coined from two Greek words
‘ergon’ means ‘work’ and ‘nomos’ means ‘natural laws’
Ergonomics means the natural laws of work
Ergonomics is defined as the relationship between man and machine and the
application of anatomical, physiological & pshychological principles to solve the
problems arising from man-machine relationship.

From design considerations, the topics of ergonomic studies

are as follows:
(i)Anatomical factors in the design of a driver’s seat
(ii)Layout of instrument dials and display panels for accurate perception by
the operators
(iii)Design of hand levers and hand wheels
(iv)Energy expenditure in hand and foot operations
(v)Lighting, noise and climatic conditions in machine environment
Ergonomists have carried out experiments to determine the best
dimensions of a driver’s seat, the most convenient hand or foot pressure
or dimensions of levers and hand wheels.
The machine is considered as an entity in itself in
machine design. However, ergonomists consider a man–
machine joint system, forming a closed loop as shown in
Fig.

Man-Machine closed loop system

 Aesthetic considerations in Design
Each product has a definite purpose. It has to perform specific
functions to the satisfaction of customer.

When there are a number of products in the market having the same
qualities of efficiency, durability and cost, the customer is attracted
towards the most appealing product.

External appearance is an important feature, which not only gives

grace and lustre to the product but also dominates sale in the
market.

The external appearance of the product does not depend upon only
the two factors of form and colour. It is a cumulative effect of a
number of factors such as rigidity and resilience, tolerances and
surface finish, motion of individual components, materials,
manufacturing methods and noise.

The industrial designer should select a form which is in harmony

with the functional requirements of the product.
 Preferred Numbers
Preferred numbers are used to specify the ‘sizes’ of the product

There are two terms, namely, ‘basic series’ and ‘derived series’, which are frequently
used in relation to preferred numbers.

R5, R10, R20, R40 and R80 are called basic series

Any series that is formed on the basis of these five basic series is called derived series.
In other words, derived series are derived from basic series.
The system is based on the use geometric progression to develop a set of
numbers
There are five basic series denoted as R5, R10, R20, R40, and R80 series
which increases in steps of 56%, 26%, 12%, 6% and 3% respectively
Each series has its own series factor as shown below
Q (1) Find out the number of the R5 basic series from 1 to 10

Q (2) Find out the numbers of R20/4 (100, ……………………..1000) derived series

Q (3) Find out the numbers of R20/3 (200,…) derived series

Q (4) It is required to standardize load-carrying capacities of dumpers in a manufacturing

unit. The maximum and minimum capacities of such dumpers are 40 and 630 kN,
respectively. The company is interested in developing seven models in this range.
Specify their load carrying capacities

Q (5) A manufacturer is interested in starting a business with five different models of

tractors ranging from 7.5 to 75 kW capacities. Specify power capacities of the models.
There is an expansion plan to further increase the number of models from five to nine to
fulfill the requirement of farmers. Specify the power capacities of the additional models
Selection of Material
• Selection of proper material for the machine components is one of the most
important steps in process of machine design
• The best material is one which will serve the desired purpose at minimum costs

Factors Considered while selecting the material:

i) Availability: Material should be readily available in market in large enough
quantities to meet the requirement
ii) Cost:
iii) Mechanical properties:
iv) Manufacturing Considerations:
• In some applications machinability of material is an important consideration in
selection
• Where the product is of complex shape, castability or ability of the molten metal
to flow into intricate passages is the criterion of material selection
• In fabricated assemblies of plates & rods, weldability becomes the governing
factor
Engineering Materials

Stress-Strain diagram of Brittle

Stress-Strain diagram of ductile materials
materials
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
a) Strength: Ability of the material to resist, without rupture, external forces causing
various types of stresses
b) Elasticity: Ability to regain its original shape & size after deformation, when the
external forces are removed
c) Plasticity: Ability to retain the deformation produced under the load on a permanent
basis
d) Stiffness or Rigidity: Ability to resist deformation under the action of an external
load
e) Resilience: Ability to absorb energy when deformed elastically & to release this
energy when unloaded
f) Toughness: Ability to absorb energy before fracture takes place
g) Malleability: Ability to deform to a greater extent before the sign of crack, when it is
subjected to compressive force
h) Ductility: Ability to deform to a greater extent before the sign of crack, when
subjected to tensile force
i) Brittleness: Property of the material which shows negligible plastic deformation
fracture takes place
j) Hardness: Resistance to penetration or permanent deformation
Modulii of Resilience & Toughness
 Cast Iron
Cast iron is an alloy of iron & carbon, containing more than 2% of carbon
Typical composition of ordinary cast iron is:
Carbon = 3-4%
Silicon = 1-3%
Manganese = 0.5-1%
Sulphur = up to 0.1%
Phosphorous = up to 0.1%
Iron = Remainder
The mechanical properties of cast iron components are inferior to the parts, which
are machined from rolled steels
Advantages:

Available in large quantities, higher compressive strength, components can be given

any complex shape without involving costly machining operations, excellent ability to
damp vibrations, more resistance to wear even under the conditions of boundary
lubrication, mechanical properties of parts do not change between room temperature
and 350 degree centigrade
 Designation of STEELS
Steels are designated by a group of letters or numbers indicating any one of the
following three properties
•Tensile strength
•Carbon content
•Composition of alloying elements

Example:
Fe 360 indicates a steel with a minimum tensile strength of 360 N/mm 2
FeE 250 indicates a steel with a minimum yield strength of 250 N/mm2

55C4 indicates a plain carbon steel with 0.55% carbon and 0.4% manganese
40C8 indicates a steel with 0.35-0.45% carbon and 0.7-0.9% manganese

25C12S14 indicates a free cutting steel with 0.25% carbon, 1.2% manganese and 0.14%
sulphur
20C12Pb15 indicates a free cutting steel with an average of 0.20% carbon, 1.2%
manganese, and 0.15% lead
 Plain Carbon Steels
Depending upon the percentage of carbon, plain carbon steels are classified as:
i) Low carbon steel – Less than 0.3% carbon, popularly known as mild steel, its soft
& ductile, easily machined & welded, however due to low carbon content
unresponsive to heat treatment
ii) Medium carbon steel – carbon content in the range of 0.3% to 0.5%, popularly
known as machinery steel, easily hardened by heat treatment , stronger &
tougher than low carbon steel, well machined, respond readily to heat treatment
iii) High carbon steel – more than 0.5% carbon, popularly known as hard steels or
tool steels, respond readily to heat treatment, when heat treated attain high
strength combined with hardness, less ductile than low carbon steels & medium
carbon steels, difficult to weld, excessive hardness accompanied by excessive
brittleness
In applications like automobile bodies & hoods, the ability of the material to deform to
a greater extent or ‘ductility’ is the most important consideration so a plain carbon
is preferred
In applications like gears, machine tool spindles & transmission shaft, strength
toughness & response to heat treatment are important considerations, medium &
high carbon steels are preferred
Spring wires are subjected to severe stress & strength is the most important
consideration so high carbon steel is selected for helical & leaf springs
 Free Cutting Steels
Steels of this group include carbon steel and carbon–manganese steel with a small
percentage of sulphur.

Due to addition of sulphur, the machinability of these steels is improved.

It involves three factors—the ease of chip formation, the ability to achieve a good
surface finish and ability to achieve an economical tool life.

Machinability is an important consideration for parts made by automatic machine tools.

Typical applications of free cutting steels are studs, bolts and nuts.
 Alloy Steels
•Carbon steel to which one or more alloying elements are added to obtain certain
beneficial effects
•The commonly added elements include silicon, manganese, nickel, chromium,
molybdenum and tungsten
•The term ‘alloy steels’ usually refers to ‘low’ alloy steels containing from 1-4% of
alloying elements
•Alloy steels have higher strength, hardness & toughness, higher hardenability,
retain their strength & hardness at elevated temperatures, higher resistance to
corrosion and oxidation
Silicon increases strength & hardness without lowering the ductility. Silicon is added
in spring steel to increase its toughness
Manganese increases hardness and toughness and also increases the depth of
hardening
Nickel increases strength, hardness and toughness without sacrificing ductility
Chromium increases hardness & wear resistance, steel containing more than 4%
chromium have excellent corrosion resistance
Molybdenum increases hardness & wear resistance, resists softening of steel during
tempering and heating
Tungsten & molybdenum have similar effects. Tungsten is expensive. 2-3% tungsten
is required to replace 1% of molybdenum

Application of Alloy steels

55Si7 Leaf and coil springs

37C15 Axle, shaft and crankshaft
35Mn6Mo3 Bolt, stud, axle lever and general engineering components
16Mn5Cr4 Gears and shafts
40Cr4 Coil, laminated and volute springs
40Cr4Mo2 Shaft, axle high tensile bolt, stud and propeller shaft
40Cr13Mo10V2 Components subjected to high tensile stresses
30Ni5Cr2 Heavy duty gears
40Ni6Cr4Mo2 General machine parts, nuts and bolts, gears, axles, shafts and
connecting rod
Tolerances
•Due to the inaccuracy of manufacturing methods, it is not possible to machine a
component to a given dimension
•The components are so manufactured that their dimensions lie between two limits –
maximum and minimum
•The basic dimension is called the normal or basic size while the difference between
the two limits is called permissible tolerance
• Tolerance is the permissible variation in the dimensions of the component
• The two limits are the upper and lower deviations
 • There are two systems of specification for tolerances namely unilateral & bilateral

•In unilateral systems, one tolerance is zero while the other takes care of all
permissible variations in basic size

Example:

•In case of bilateral tolerances, the variations are given in both directions from
normal size

•The upper limit in this case is the basic size plus non-zero positive tolerance and
the lower limit is the basic size plus non-zero negative tolerance
Example:

Q. The dimensions of the mating parts, according to basic hole system are given as
follows:
Hole : 25 mm Shaft : 24.97
mm
25.02 24.97 mm
Design against Static loads
A static load is a force which is gradually applied to a mechanical component and
which does not change its magnitude or direction with respect to time
A mechanical components may fail, i.e., may be unable to perform its function
satisfactorily, as a result of any one of the following three modes of failure:
i) Failure by elastic deflection
ii) Failure by general yielding &
iii) Failure by fracture
In applications like transmission shaft supporting gears , the maximum force
acting on the shaft, without affecting its performance, is limited by the permissible
elastic deflection. Elastic deflection results in unstable conditions, such as
buckling of columns or vibrations
A mechanical components made of ductile material loses its engineering
usefulness due to a large amount of plastic deformation after the yield point is
reached. Considerable portion of the component is subjected to plastic
deformation called general yielding
Components made of brittle material cease to function satisfactorily because of
the sudden fracture without any plastic deformation. The failure in this case is
sudden & total
 Theories of failure
Events such as distortion, permanent set, cracking, and rupturing are
among the ways that a machine element fails.
By testing machines the specimens are pulled, bent, and twisted in simple
loading processes.
Structural metal behavior is typically classified as being ductile or brittle.

Ductile materials are normally classified such that εf ≥ 0.05 and have an
identifiable yield strength that is often the same in compression as in
tension (Syt = Syc = Sy).

Brittle materials, εf < 0.05, do not exhibit an identifiable yield strength, and
are typically classified by ultimate tensile and compressive strengths, Sut
and Suc, respectively.

The generally accepted theories are:

Ductile materials (yield criteria)

∙ Maximum principal stress theory (Rankine’s theory)
∙ Maximum shear stress theory (Coulomb, Tresca and Guest’s theory)
∙ Distortion energy theory (Huber von Mises and Hencky’s theory)

Brittle materials (fracture criteria)

∙ Maximum normal stress theory
Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory for Ductile
Materials
The maximum-shear-stress theory predicts that yielding begins whenever
the maximum shear stress in any element equals or exceeds the maximum
shear stress in a tension-test specimen of the same material when that
specimen begins to yield.
The MSS theory is also referred to as the Tresca or Guest theory.
Design of Cotter Joint
•A cotter joint is used to connect two co-axial rods, which are subjected to either axial
tensile force or axial compressive force
•It is also used to connect a rod on one side with some machine part like a crosshead
or base plate on the other side
• It is not used for connecting shafts that rotate & transmit torque

Typical applications of cotter joint:

i) Joint between the piston rod & the crosshead of a steam engine
ii) Joint between the slide spindle & fork of the valve mechanism
iii) Joint between the piston rod & the tail or pump rod
iv) Foundation bolt
 Notations used:
P = tensile force acting on rods (N)

d = diameter of each rod (mm)

d1 = outside diameter of socket (mm)

d2 = diameter of spigot or inside diameter of socket (mm)

d3 = diameter of spigot-collar (mm)

d4 = diameter of socket-collar (mm)

a = distance from end of slot to the end of spigot on rod-B (mm)

b = mean width of cotter (mm)

c = axial distance from slot to end of socket collar (mm)

t = thickness of cotter (mm)

t1 = thickness of spigot-collar (mm)

 Design procedure for Cotter joint
i) Calculate the diameter of each rod by
d= 4P/πσt
ii) Calculate the thickness of the cotter by the empirical relation
t = 0.31d
iii) Calculate the diameter d2 of spigot on the basis of tensile stress
P = [π/4(d22 - d2 t]σt
iv) Calculate the outside diameter d1 of the socket on the basis of tensile stress in
the socket
P = π/4 {(d12 – d22) – (d1 – d2)t] σt
v) The diameter of the spigot collar d3 & diameter of the socket collar d4 are
calculated by the following empirical relationship
d3 = 1.5 d
d4 = 2.4 d
vi) The dimensions ‘a’ and ‘c’ are calculated by the following empirical relationship
a = c = 0.75 d
vii) Calculate the width ‘b’ of the cotter by shear consideration and bending
consideration and select the width, whichever is maximum between these two values
b = P/2 t or b =[3P/t σb{(d2/4) +(d4 – d2/6)}]1/2
viii) Check the Crushing & Shear stresses in the Spigot end
σc = P/td2  = P/2ad 2

ix) Check the Crushing & Shear stresses in the Socket end
σc = P/ (d4 – d2)t  = P/{2(d – d ) c}
4 2

x) Calculate the thickness t1 of the spigot collar by the empirical relationship

t1 = 0.45 d
1) Design and draw a detailed sketch of cotter joint which is required to withstand a load of 30 kN in
tension and compression. The material used for the cotter joint has following allowable stress values:
Allowable stress in tension = 50 MPa, Shear stress = 35 Mpa, Crushing stress = 90 Mpa

2) Design and draw cotter joint required to withstand a load of 45 kN. The cotter joint is made up of
material having following allowable stresses:
Allowable stress in tension =55 MPa
Allowable shear stress = 40 MPa
Allowable Crushing stress = 70 Mpa

3) It is required to design a cotter joint which is used to connect two steel rods having same diameter.
The maximum axial load on the joint is 50 kN. The material used for joint is 30C8, ultimate tensile stress
for the material is 400 MPa. Using factor of safety 6. Design all dimensions of the joint. Take ultimate
shear stress half that of ultimate tensile stress and Ultimate Crushing stress double that of ultimate
tensile stress. Draw the neat dimensioned sketch of the joint designed showing all important
dimensions.

4) A cotter joint carries a load of 150 kN, is made up material 45C8. The ultimate tensile stress is 500
MPa. Using factor of safety of 4 design the joint. Take ultimate shear stress half that of ultimate tensile
stress and Ultimate Crushing stress double that of ultimate tensile stress. Draw the neat dimensioned
sketch of the joint designed showing all important dimensions.

5) Design and draw cotter joint required to withstand a load of 200 kN. The cotter joint is made up of
material having following allowable stresses
Allowable stress in tension = 65 MPa
Allowable shear stress = 45 MPa
Allowable Crushing stress = 125 MPa
Knuckle Joint
Knuckle Joint is used to connect two rods whose axes either coincide or intersect
and lie in one plane
Knuckle joint is used to transmit axial tensile force
The construction of this joint permits limited angular movement between rods, about
the axis of the pin
Knuckle joint is unsuitable to connect two rotating shafts which transmit torque

Typical application of Knuckle joint

i) Joints between the tie bars in roof trusses
ii) Joints between the links of a suspension bridge
iii) Joints in valve mechanism of a reciprocating engine
iv) Fulcrum for the levers
v) Joints between the links of a bicycle chain
 Notations used:

D = diameter of each rod (mm)

D1 = enlarged diameter of of each rod (mm)

d = diameter of knuckle pin (mm)

d0 = outside diameter of eye or fork (mm)

a = thickness of each eye of fork (mm)

b = thickness of eye end of rod-B (mm)

d1 = diameter of pin head (mm)

x = distance of the centre of fork radius R from the eye (mm)

 Design procedure for Knuckle joint
i) Calculate the diameter of each rod by
D = (4P/ πσt)1/2
ii) Calculate the enlarged diameter of each rod by empirical relationship
D1 = 1.1 D
iii) Calculate the dimensions ‘a’ and ‘b’
a = 0.75 D ; b = 1.25 D
iv) Calculate the diameters of the Pin by Shear consideration & bending consideration
and select the diameter, whichever is maximum

d = (2P/ π )
1/2
or d = [32P/2πσb(b/4 + a/3)]1/3
v) Calculate the dimensions d0 and d1 by empirical relationship
d0 = 2d d1 = 1.5d
vi) Check the tensile, crushing and shear stresses in the eye
σt = P/{b(d0 – d)} σc = P/bd  = P/{b(d – d)}
0

vii) Check the tensile, crushing and shear stresses in the fork
σt = P/{2a(d0 – d)} σc = P/2bd  = P/{2a(d0 – d)}
Design against Fluctuating loads
Forces vary in magnitude with respect to time
Stresses induced due to such forces are called Fluctuating stresses
It is observed that about 80% of failures of mechanical components are due to ‘fatigue
failure’ resulting from fluctuating stresses
There are three types of mathematical models for cyclic stresses – fluctuating
stresses, repeated stresses & reversed stresses
 Stress Concentration
In the development of the basic stress equations for tension, compression,
bending, and torsion, it was assumed that no geometric irregularities
occurred in the member under consideration.

But it is quite difficult to design a machine without permitting some changes

in the cross sections of the members. Rotating shafts must have shoulders
designed on them so that the bearings can be properly seated and so that
they will take thrust loads; and the shafts must have key slots machined into
them for securing pulleys and gears.

A bolt has a head on one end and screw threads on the other end, both of
which account for abrupt changes in the cross section.

Other parts require holes, oil grooves, and notches of various kinds. Any
discontinuity in a machine part alters the stress distribution in the
neighborhood of the discontinuity so that the elementary stress equations no
longer describe the state of stress in the part at these locations.

Such discontinuities are called stress raisers, and the regions in which they
occur are called areas of stress concentration.

Stress concentrations can also arise from some irregularity not inherent in
the member, such as tool marks, holes, notches, grooves, or threads.
Stress concentration is defined as the localization of high stresses due to the
irregularities present in the component and abrupt changes of the cross section
In order to consider the effect of stress concentration & find out localized stresses, a
factor called stress concentration factor is used.
It is denoted by Kt and defined as
Kt = Highest value of actual stress near discontinuity/Nominal stress obtained by
elementary equations for minimum cross section
= σmax/σo
= τmax/τo
Where are stresses determined by elementary equations and are localized stresses at
the discontinuities.
The subscript t denotes the theoretical stress concentration factor.
The magnitude of stress concentration factor depends upon the geometry of the
component.
Causes of stress concentration.
1) Variation in properties of materials
2) Load application
3) Abrupt changes in section
4) Discontinuities in the component
5) Machining scratches
Reduction of stress concentration

Although it is not possible to completely eliminate the effect of stress concentration,

there are methods to reduce stress concentration
This is achieved by providing a specific geometric shape to the component
In order to know what happens at the abrupt change of cross section or at the
discontinuity and reduce the stress concentration, understanding of flow analogy is
useful.

In practice, reduction of stress concentration is achieved by the following

method:
(i) Additional Notches and Holes in Tension Member
(ii) Fillet Radius, Undercutting and Notch for Member in Bending
(iii) Drilling Additional Holes for Shaft
(iv) Reduction of Stress Concentration in Threaded Members
ditional Notches and Holes in Tension Member
let Radius, Undercutting and Notch for Member in Bending
Drilling Additional Holes for Shaft

(iii) Drilling Additional Holes for Shaft

eduction of Stress Concentration in Threaded Members
 Fatigue Failure
• Materials fail under fluctuating stresses at a stress magnitude which is lower than
the ultimate tensile strength of the materials
• Sometimes, the magnitude is even lower than the yield strength
•It has been found that the magnitude of the stress causing fatigue failure decreases
as the number of stress cycles increase
•This phenomenon of decreased resistance of the materials to fluctuating stresses is
the main characteristics of fatigue failure
Fatigue failure is defined as time delayed fracture under cyclic loading
Endurance Limit

The fatigue or endurance limit of a material is defined as the maximum amplitude of

completely reversed stress that the standard specimen can sustain for an unlimited
number of cycles without fatigue failure.

Since the fatigue test cannot be conducted for unlimited or infinite number of cycles, 10 6
cycles is considered as a sufficient number of cycles to define the endurance limit.

There is another term called fatigue life, which is frequently used with endurance limit.

The fatigue life is defined as the number of stress cycles that the standard specimen can
complete during the test before the appearance of the first fatigue crack.

In the laboratory, the endurance limit is determined by means of a rotating beam

machine developed by R R Moore.

Specimen of Fatigue Test

Rotating Beam Fatigue testing machine
 S-N Curve

S-N Curve for steel Low and High cycle fatigue

Any fatigue failure when the number of stress cycles are less than 1000 is
called low-cycle fatigue while more than 1000 is called high-cycle fatigue.

Examples
 Failure of studs on truck wheels, failure of setscrews for locating gears on
shafts or failures of short-lived devices such as missiles are the examples of
low-cycle fatigue.

 The failure of machine components such as springs, ball bearings or gears

ENDURANCE LIMIT—APPROXIMATE ESTIMATION

The laboratory method for determining the endurance limit of materials,

although more precise, is laborious and time consuming. A number of tests
are required to prepare one S–N curve and each test takes considerable
time. It is, therefore, not possible to get the experimental data of each and
every material.

Se’ = Endurance limit stress of a rotating beam specimen subjected to

reversed bending stress (N/mm2)
Se = Endurance limit stress of a particular mechanical component subjected
to reversed bending stress(N/mm2)

For steels Se’ = 0.5 Sut

For cast iron and cast steels Se’ = 0.4 Sut
For wrought aluminium alloys Se’ = 0.4 Sut
For cast aluminium alloys, Se’ = 0.3 Sut

The relationship between (Se) and (Se”) is as follows:

Se = Ka Kb Kc Kd Se’

where,
Ka = surface finish factor
Kb = size factor
) Surface finish Factor (iii) Reliability Factor

i) Size Factor (iv) Modifying Factor to Account for St

Concentration
NOTCH SENSITIVITY

Notch sensitivity is defined as the susceptibility of a material to succumb to

the damaging effects of stress raising notches in fatigue loading. The notch
sensitivity factor q is defined as

q = Increase of actual stress over nominal stress

Increase of theoretical stress over nominal stress

Where
σo = nominal stress as obtained by elementary equations

e following conclusions are drawn

In general, the magnitude of the notch sensitivity factor q varies from 0 to

1.
REVERSED STRESSES—DESIGN FOR FINITE AND
INFINITE LIFE
There are two types of problems in fatigue design -
(i)components subjected to completely reversed stresses, and
(ii)components subjected to fluctuating stresses.

The design problems for completely reversed stresses are further divided
into two groups
(i)design for infinite life, and
(ii)design for finite life.
Case I: When the component is to be designed for infinite life, the endurance
limit becomes the criterion of failure. Such components are designed with
the help ofwhere (σa) and equations:
the following (τa) are stress amplitudes in the component and Se
and Sse are corrected endurance limits in reversed bending and
torsion respectively.

Case II: When the component is to be designed for finite life, the S–N curve
as shown in Fig. can be used. The curve is valid for steels.
It consists of a Fig. S-N Curve straight line AB drawn from (0.9 Sut) at 10 3
cycles to (Se) at 106 cycles on a log-log paper.
CUMULATIVE DAMAGE IN FATIGUE

In certain applications, the mechanical component is subjected to different stress levels for
different parts of the work cycle. The life of such a component is determined by Miner’s equation.

Suppose that a component is subjected to completely reversed stresses ( σ1) for (n1) cycles,

(σ2) for (n2) cycles, and so on.

Let N1 be the number of stress cycles before fatigue failure, if only the alternating stress ( σ1 ) is
acting.
One stress cycle will consume (1/ N1 ) of the fatigue life and since there are n1 such cycles at

this stress level, the proportionate damage of fatigue life will be [(1/ N1 ) n1 ] or (n1/ N 1 ).

Similarly, the proportionate damage at stress level (σ2 ) will be ( n2 / N ). 2

Adding these quantities, we get

The above equation is known as Miner’s equation.

Sometimes, the number of cycles n1 , n2,…at stress levels σ1, σ2,… are unknown. Suppose
that α1, α2,… are proportions of the total life that will be consumed by the stress levels σ1,

σ2,,… etc.
Substituting these values in Miner’s equation

Also,

With the help of the above equations, the life of the component subjected to different
stress levels can be determined

Q. The work cycle of a mechanical component subjected to completely reversed bending

stresses consists of the following three elements:
(i) ± 350 N/mm2 for 85% of time
(ii) ± 400 N/mm2 for 12% of time
(iii) ± 500 N/mm2 for 3% of time
The material for the component is 50C4 (Sut = 660 N/mm2) and the corrected
endurance limit of the component is 280 N/mm2. Determine the life of the component.
SODERBERG AND GOODMAN LINES

When a component is subjected to fluctuating stresses, there is mean stress as

well as stress amplitude . It has been observed that the mean stress component has
an effect on fatigue failure when it is present in combination with an alternating
component. The fatigue diagram for this general case is shown.

When stress amplitude is zero, the load is purely static and the criterion of failure is
Sut or Syt. These limits are plotted on the abscissa. When the mean stress is zero,
the stress is completely reversing and the criterion of failure is the endurance limit Se
that is plotted on the ordinate. When the component is subjected to both components of
stress, viz., and , the actual failure occurs at different scattered points shown in
the figure. There exists a border, which divides safe region from unsafe region for
various combinations of and .
The Gerber parabola fits the failure points of test data in the best possible
way.

The Goodman line fits beneath the scatter of this data.

Both Gerber parabola and Goodman line intersect at (Se) on the ordinate to
(Sut) on the abscissa. However, the Goodman line is more safe from design
considerations because it is completely inside the Gerber parabola and
inside the failure points.

The Soderberg line is a more conservative failure criterion and there is no

need to consider even yielding in this case.

We will apply following form for the equation of a straight line

where a and b are the intercepts of the line on the X and Y axes respectively

Applying the above formula, the equation of the Soderberg line is given by

Similarly, the equation of the Goodman line is given by

The Goodman line is widely used as the criterion of fatigue failure when the
component is subjected to mean stress as well as stress amplitude.

It is because of the following reasons:

(i) The Goodman line is safe from design considerations because it is
 D GOODMAN DIAGRAMS

onents, which are subjected to fluctuating stresses, are designed by constructin

Goodman diagram. For the purpose of design, the problems are classified into tw
nents subjected to fluctuating axial or bending stresses; and
nents subjected to fluctuating torsional shear stresses.

gram, the Goodman line is ‘modified’ by combining fatigue failure with failure b
Thearea OABC represents the region of safety f
components subjected to fluctuating stresses.

 The region OABC is called Modified Goodman d

Allthe points inside the modified Goodman diag

should cause neither fatigue failure nor yielding.

The modified Goodman diagram combines fatigu

criteria as represented by the Goodman line and
criteria as represented by yield line.

If the mean component of stress is very large and the alternating

component is very small, their combination will define a point in the
region BCF that would be safely within the Goodman line but would yield on
While solving a problem, a line OE with a slope of is constructed in
such a way that,
The magnitudes of Pa and Pm can be determined
from maximum and minimum forces acting on the
component.

The magnitudes of (Mb)a and (Mb)m can be

determined from maximum and minimum bending
moment acting on the component.

Q. A cantilever beam made of cold drawn steel 4OC8 (Sut = 600 N/mm2 and Syt = 380
N/mm2) is shown . The force P acting at the free end varies from –50 N to +150 N. The
expected reliability is 90% and the factor of safety is 2. The notch sensitivity factor at the
fillet is 0.9. Determine the diameter ‘d’ of the beam at the fillet cross-section.
GERBER EQUATION
The Soderberg line and Goodman line are straight lines. The theories using such
straight lines for predicting fatigue failure are called ‘linear’ theories.
There are some theories that use parabolic or elliptical curves instead of straight
lines. These theories are called ‘non-linear’ theories.
One of the most popular non-linear theories is the Gerber theory that is based on
parabolic curve. The Gerber curve is shown in Fig. below. The equation for the Gerber
curve is as follows:

Theories based on the Soderberg line or the Goodman line, as failure criteria are
conservative theories. This results in increased dimensions of the component.
The Gerber curve takes the mean path through failure points. It is therefore more
accurate in predicting fatigue failure.
Q. A machine component is subjected to fluctuating stress that
varies from 40 to 100 N/mm2. The corrected endurance limit stress
for the machine component is 270 N/mm2. The ultimate tensile
strength and yield strength of the material are 600 and 450 N/mm2
respectively. Find the factor of safety using (i) Gerber theory (ii)