ME 8539- DESIGN OF MACHINE

ELEMENTS

Mr.M.JAGADEESAN M.E.
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

VELTECH HIGHTECH DR RANGARAJAN DR SAKUNTHALA

ENGINEERING COLLEGE, AVADI
1
 UNIT I STEADY STRESSES AND VARIABLE
STRESSES IN MACHINE MEMBERS

Introduction to the design process - factor influencing machine design,

selection of materials based on mechanical properties -- Preferred
numbers, fits and tolerances – Direct, Bending and torsional stress
equations – Impact and shock loading – calculation of principle stresses
for various load combinations, eccentric loading – Design of curved
beams – crane hook and ‘C’ frame - Factor of safety - theories of failure
– Design based on strength and stiffness – stress concentration – design
for variable loading.
2
 BOOKS REFERRED

1. Bhandari V.B, “Design of Machine Elements”, Tata McGraw-Hill

Book Co, 2003.

3
 INTRODUCTION
1. Machine Design is defined as, “The use of scientific principles,
technical information and imagination in the description of a machine or
a mechanical system to perform specific functions with maximum
economy and efficiency”.

2. The designing technology comprises the following features,

1. Identifying a problem.

2. Analyzing it in different angles.

3. Finding the solution in the optimum way

4
 CLASSIFICATION OF MACHINE
DESIGN
1. ADAPTIVE DESIGN – Slightly modifying the structures of the
existing machines by imposing newer ideas and designing a new
machine which is basically a similar structure with the old one.

2. DEVELOPED DESIGN – With good design ability and thorough

knowledge, a new idea is imposed upon the existing design.

3. NEW DESIGN – By making use of basic scientific principles and

various human capabilities, some elements are newly designed by
trial and error methods.
5
 CLASSIFICATION OF MACHINE
DESIGN
4. RATIONAL DESIGN – The design is based on the mathematical
formulae of principles of mechanics and other scientific techniques.

5. EMPIRICAL DESIGN – The design is made by use of Empirical

formulae based on practice and past experience.

6. INDUSTRIAL DESIGN – The design of machine components

depends upon the production aspects to manufacture them.

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STATGES IN DESIGN PROCESS

7
 GENERAL DESIGN PROCESS

1. Recognition of need – involves the realization by someone that a

problem exists for which some corrective action should be taken.
Example: - Identification of some defect in a current machine design,
perception of a new product from market demand.

2. Definition of the Problem – involves a thorough specification of the

item to be designed, which include physical and functional
requirement characteristics, cost, quality and operating performance.

8
 GENERAL DESIGN PROCESS
3. Synthesis and Analysis – are closely related and highly iterative in the
design process. A component is conceptualized by the designer,
subject to analysis, improved through analysis procedure and
redesigned. The process is repeated until the design has been
optimized within the constraints.

4. Evaluation – is concerned with measuring the design against the

specifications established in the problem definition phase. The
evaluation often requires the fabrication and testing of a prototype.
9
 GENERAL DESIGN PROCESS
5. Presentation – This includes documentation of the design by means
of drawings, material specifications, assembly lists and so on.

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BASIC DESIGN OF MACHINE
ELEMENT

11
BASIC DESIGN OF
MACHINE
ELEMENT

12
 FACTORS INFLUENCING MACHINE
DESIGN
1. Type of loading – whether static load, dynamic load or impact load.
Components designed for dynamic and impact load should be
bigger than that for static or steady load.

2. Size and Shape of the Object – Usually the size is inversely

proportional to material strength if the load is kept constant.

3. Material properties required – Whether hard, soft, rigid,

transparent, opaque, conductive , ductile and brittle material
required.
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 FACTORS INFLUENCING MACHINE
DESIGN
4. Environmental conditions – Whether the component is operated in
corrosive or non-corrosive atmosphere, cool or hot conditions.

5. Place of operations – Whether in land (aircraft), water (Ship) or in

land.

6. Human safety – The parts should have provisions for safety

handling and easy maintenance.

7. Cost – Any designed component should be within peoples buying

capacity.
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 FACTORS INFLUENCING
MACHINE DESIGN
1. Service Life.

2. Appearance.

3. Quantity Required.

4. Handling Provisions.

5. Motion of components.

6. Availability of spare parts.

7. Manufacturing methods.

8. Provision for using standard parts. 15

 SELECTION OF MATERIALS BASED ON
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

ENGG MATERIALS

METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS NON-METALS

Iron, Steel, Copper and Aluminium Glass, Rubber.

FERROUS – Those which have NON-FERROUS – Those which have metal

iron as main constituent such as other than iron as their main constituent
cast iron, steel etc. such as copper, aluminum etc.
16
 SELECTION OF MATERIALS

1. One of the most difficult problem for the designer is the selection of
proper material.

2. The best material is one which serve the desired objective at the
minimum cost.

3. The factors to be considered while selecting the material is,

1. Availability of the materials.

2. Suitability of the materials for the working conditions in service.

3. The cost of the material. 17

 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
METALS
1. STRENGTH – Ability of the material to resist the externally applied
forces without breaking or yielding.

2. STIFFNESS – Ability of the material to resist deformation.

3. ELASTICITY – Property of the material to regain its original shape after

deformation when the external forces are removed.

4. PLASTICITY – Property of the material which retains the deformation

produced under load permanently.

5. DUCTILITY – Material property due to which it can be drawn into wires.

6. BRITTLENESS – Property opposite to Ductility 18

 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
METALS
7. MALLEABILITY – Property of the material due to which it can be rolled
or hammered into thin sheets.

8. TOUGHNESS – Property of the material to resist high impact loads.

9. MACHINABILITY – Property of the material due to which the material

can be cut with relative ease.

10. RESILIENCE – Property of the material to absorb energy and to resist

shock and impact loads.

11. CREEP – Due to the application of constant stress at high temperature for
long time, slow and permanent deformation is obtained.
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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
METALS
12. FATIGUE – Material fails at stresses below the yield point stresses due to
repeated stresses.

13. HARDNESS – Resistance to wear, scratch, deformation and abrasion.

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 DDB – 7.19

PREFERRED NUMBERS
1. Preferred numbers are used to specify the ‘sizes’ of the product.

2. Charles Renard introduced preferred numbers in 19th century.

3. The system is based on the use of geometric progression to develop

a set of numbers.

4. There are five basic series denoted as, R5, R10, R20, R40, R80
series, which increase in steps of 58%, 26%, 12%, 6% and 3%
respectively.

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PREFERRED NUMBERS

1. The series is established by taking the

first number and multiplying it by a
series factor to get the second number.

2. The second number is multiplied by a

series factor to get the third number.

3. This procedure is continued until the

complete series is built up.

22
Important Terms used in Limit
System

23
 Important Terms used in Limit
System
1. Nominal size - It is the size of a part specified in the drawing as a
matter of convenience.

2. Basic size - It is the size of a part to which all limits of variation (i.e.
tolerances) are applied to arrive at final dimensioning of the mating
parts. The nominal or basic size of a part is often the same.

3. Actual size - It is the actual measured dimension of the part. The

difference between the basic size and the actual size should not
exceed a certain limit, otherwise it will interfere with the
24
interchangeability of the mating parts.
 Important Terms used in Limit
System
4. Limits of sizes - There are two extreme permissible sizes for a
dimension of the part. The largest permissible size for a dimension of
the part is called upper or high or maximum limit, whereas the
smallest size of the part is known as lower or minimum limit.

5. Allowance - It is the difference between the basic dimensions of the

mating parts. The allowance may be positive or negative. When the
shaft size is less than the hole size, then the allowance is positive and
when the shaft size is greater than the hole size, then the allowance is
25
negative.
 Important Terms used in Limit
System
6. Tolerance - It is the difference between the upper limit and lower
limit of a dimension. In other words, it is the maximum permissible
variation in a dimension. The tolerance may be unilateral or
bilateral.

26
 Important Terms used in Limit
System
7. Tolerance zone - It is the zone between the maximum and minimum
limit size.

27
Important Terms used in Limit
System

28
 Important Terms used in Limit
System
8. Zero line - It is a straight line corresponding to the basic size. The
deviations are measured from this line. The positive and negative
deviations are shown above and below the zero line respectively.

9. Upper deviation - It is the algebraic difference between the

maximum size and the basic size. The upper deviation of a hole is
represented by a symbol ES (Ecart Superior) and of a shaft, it is
represented by es.

29
 Important Terms used in Limit
System
10. Lower deviation - It is the algebraic difference between the
minimum size and the basic size. The lower deviation of a hole is
represented by a symbol EI (Ecart Inferior) and of a shaft, it is
represented by ei.

11. Actual deviation - It is the algebraic difference between an actual

size and the corresponding basic size.

12. Mean deviation - It is the arithmetical mean between the upper and
lower deviations.
30
 Important Terms used in Limit
System
13. Fundamental deviation - It is one of the two deviations which is
conventionally chosen to define the position of the tolerance zone in
relation to zero line.

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 TYPES OF FITS

1. When two parts are to be assembled, the relationship resulting from

the difference between their sizes before assembly is called a fit.

2. Clearance Fit – It always provides a positive clearance between the

hole and the shaft over the entire range of tolerances. In this case, the
tolerance zone of the hole is entirely above that of the shaft.

3. Interference Fit – It always provides a positive interference over the

whole range of tolerances. In this case, the tolerance zone of the hole
is completely below that of the shaft.
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 TYPES OF FITS

4. Transition Fit – It may provide either a clearance or interference fit,

depending upon the actual value of the individual tolerances of the
mating components. In this case, the tolerance zones of the hole and
the shaft overlap.

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 BASIS OF LIMIT SYSTEM
1. Hole basis system - When the hole is kept as a constant member (i.e.
when the lower deviation of the hole is zero) and different fits are
obtained by varying the shaft size, then the limit system is said to be
on a hole basis.

2. Shaft basis system - When the shaft is kept as a constant member

(i.e. when the upper deviation of the shaft is zero) and different fits
are obtained by varying the hole size, then the limit system is said to
be on a shaft basis.
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BASIS OF LIMIT SYSTEM

35
 BASIS OF LIMIT SYSTEM
The hole basis and shaft basis system may also be shown as with
respect to the zero line.

36
 BIS SYSTEM OF FITS AND
TOLERANCES
1. According to Bureau of Indian Standards, tolerance is specified by
alphabet followed by a number. (H7 or g8).

2. The description of tolerances consists of two parts, fundamental

deviation and magnitude of tolerance.

3. The fundamental deviation gives the location of the tolerance zone

with respect to the zero line. It is indicated by an alphabet. The
magnitude of the tolerance is designated by a number called grade.

4. The grade of tolerance is defined as a group of tolerances, which are

37
considered to have the same level of accuracy for all basic sizes.
 BIS SYSTEM OF FITS AND
TOLERANCES
1. There are 18 grades of tolerances, IT1, IT2, … IT 18.

2. IT – International Tolerance

3. 1, 2, … - Tolerance grade.

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 STATIC LOAD

1. A static load is defined as a force, which is gradually applied to a

mechanical component and which does not change its magnitude or
direction with respect to time.

2. A mechanical component may fail by any one of the methods,

1. Failure by elastic deformation.

2. Failure by general yielding (Ductile material).

3. Failure by fracture (Brittle material).

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 FACTOR OF SAFETY
1. While designing a component, it is necessary to provide sufficient
reserve strength in case of an accident. This is achieved by taking a
suitable factor of safety (FOS or fs).

2. The factor of safety is defined as,

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 FACTOR OF SAFETY
1. For ductile materials, the allowable stress σ is obtained by the
relationship.

2. For brittle materials, the relationship is,

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 STRESS STRAIN RELATIONSHIP

Assumptions made in the analysis of stress and strain,

1. The material is homogeneous.

2. The load is gradually applied.

3. The line of action of force P passes through the geometric axis of

the cross-section.

4. The cross-section is uniform.

5. There is no stress concentration.

42
 STRESS STRAIN RELATIONSHIP

1. When a mechanical component is subjected to an external static

force, a resisting force is set up within the component. This resisting
force per unit area of the component is called stress.

2. The stresses are called tensile, when the fibers of the component tend
to elongate due to the external force.

43
 Young’s Modulus

1. According to Hooke’s law, the stress is directly proportional to the

strain within elastic limit.

2. Therefore,

Where

E – Young’s modulus or Modulus of elasticity (N/mm2 or MPa)

44
 STRESS STRAIN RELATIONSHIP

1. When the fibers tend to shorten due to the external forces, the
stresses are called compressive stresses.

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 STRESS STRAIN RELATIONSHIP

1. When the external force acting on a component tends to slide the

adjacent planes with respect to each other, the resulting stresses on
these planes are called direct shear stresses.

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 STRESS STRAIN RELATIONSHIP

1. The shear strain (γ) is defined as the change in the right angle of a
shear element.

2. Within elastic limit, the stress – strain relationship is given by,

Where, G is the constant of proportionality known as Shear modulus of

modulus of rigidity (N/mm2 or MPa)

47
 STRESS STRAIN RELATIONSHIP

1. The relationship between the modulus of elasticity, modulus of

rigidity and the Poisson's ratio is given by,

2. Poisson’ ratio is the ratio of strain in the lateral direction to that in the
axial direction.

48
 STRESSES DUE TO BENDING
MOMENT
1. The straight beam is subjected to a combination of tensile stress on
one side of the neutral axis and compressive stress on the other side.
2. Such as stress distribution can be visualized in bending a leather belt,
cracks appearing on the outer surface, while folds appear on the inner
surface.
3. Therefore outer fibers are in tension, while the inside fibers are in
compression. The bending stress at any fibre is given by,
σb – Bending stress at a distance y from the neutral axis.

Mb – Applied bending moment

I – Moment of inertia of the cross-section about the neutral axis.

49
 STRESSES DUE TO BENDING
MOMENT
1. The bending stress is maximum in a fibre, which is farthest from the
neutral axis..

2. The distribution of the stresses is linear and the stress is proportional

to the distance from the neutral axis.

50
 STRESSES DUE TO TORSIONAL
MOMENT
1. The internal stresses, which are induced to resist the action of twist,
are called torsional shear stresses.

τ – Torsional shear stress at the fibre.

Mt – Applied torque.

r – Radial distance of the fibre from the axis of rotation

J – Polar moment of inertia of the cross-section about the axis of

rotation. 51
STRESSES DUE TO TORSIONAL
MOMENT
1. The distribution of torsional shear
stress shows that the stress is
maximum at the outer fibre and
zero at the axis of rotation.

2. The angle of twist is given by,

θ – angle of twist (radians)

l – length of the twist.

52
 IMPACT LOADING
1. Impact is defined as a collision of one
component in motion with a second
component, which may be either in motion
or at rest.

2. The stress produced in the member due to

the impact load is known as impact
stress.

3. Driving a nail with a hammer or breaking

53
a coconut.
 IMPACT LOADING
Consider a bar carrying a load W at a height h and falling on the
collar provided at the lower end, as shown. Let
A = Cross-sectional area of the bar,
E = Young's modulus of the material of the bar,
l = Length of the bar,
δl = Deformation of the bar,
P = Force at which the deflection δl is produced,
σi = Stress induced in the bar due to the application of impact load
h = Height through which the load falls.
54
 IMPACT LOADING
1. The weight W falls through the height h and strikes the collar of the
bar.

2. In this process, the potential energy released by the falling weight is

absorbed by the bar and stored in the form of strain energy.

3. Energy released by falling weight = potential energy = W (h+δ)

4. Energy absorbed by the system = strain energy

= average load x deflection.

5. Equating the above two expressions. …..(1) 55

 IMPACT LOADING
1. Also, …… (2)

2. Hence, By sub (2) in (1)

3. The above equation is a quadratic equation. Solving the equation and

using positive sign for getting maximum value,

……. (3)

56
 IMPACT LOADING
1. Substituting the above expression for impact stress,
By sub (3) in (2)

1. The quantity (P/W) is called shock factor, which indicates the

magnification of the load W into the impact force P during impact.

2. When the weight is applied instantaneously without any initial

velocity (h=0), then

3. It means that the stress in the bar is double when load is applied
suddenly compared with a gradually applied load.
57
 PRINCIPAL STRESSES
1. At any point in a strained material, there are three planes, mutually
perpendicular to each other which carry direct stresses only and no
shear stress.

2. Out of these three direct stresses, one will be maximum and the other
will be minimum.

3. These perpendicular planes which have no shear stress are known as

principal planes and the direct stresses along these planes are known
as principal stresses.

4. The planes on which the maximum shear stress act are known as
58
planes of maximum shear
PRINCIPAL STRESSES

59
PRINCIPAL STRESSES - Problems

Dr. NSK - APEC 60

PRINCIPAL STRESSES - Problems

Dr. NSK - APEC 61

 DDB – 7.1

ECCENTRIC LOADING
1. An external load, whose line of action is parallel but does not
coincide with the centroidal axis of the machine component, is
known as an eccentric load.

2. The distance between the centroidal axis of the machine component

and the eccentric load is called eccentricity and is generally denoted
by e.

3. The examples of eccentric loading, from the subject point of view,

are C-clamps, punching machines, brackets, offset connecting links
62
etc.
ECCENTRIC LOADING
Bending stress

63
 ECCENTRIC LOADING
1. According to principle of statics, the eccentric force P can be
replaced by a parallel force P passing through the centroidal axis
along with a couple (P x e) as shown.

2. The force P causes a uniformly distributed tensile stress of

magnitude (P/A).

3. The couple causes bending stresses of magnitude (Pey / I).

4. The resultant stresses at the cross section are obtained by principle of

superimposition of stresses as,
64
ECCENTRIC LOADING - Problems

65
ECCENTRIC LOADING - Problems

66
 DDB – 6.2, 6.3

CURVED BEAMS
1. A curved beam is defined as a beam in which the neutral axis in
unloaded condition is curved instead of straight.

2. Assumptions made in stress analysis of curved beam are,

1. Plane section perpendicular to the axis of the beam remain plane

after bending.

2. The moduli of elasticity in tension and compression are equal.

3. The material is homogeneous and obeys Hooke’s law.

67
CURVED BEAMS

68
 CURVED BEAMS
1. The two factors, which distinguish the analysis of straight and curved
beams are,

1. The neutral and centroidal axis of the straight beam are

coincident. However, in curved beam the neutral axis is shifted
towards the center of curvature.

2. The bending stresses, in straight beam, vary linearly with the

distance from the neutral axis. However, in curved beams, the
stress distribution is hyperbolic.
69
CURVED BEAMS – Notations Used

Ro - Radius of Outer fibre.

Ri - Radius of Inner fibre.
R - Radius of Centroidal axis.
RN - Radius of neutral axis.
hi - Distance of inner fibre from neutral axis.
ho - Distance of outer fibre from neutral axis
Mb - Bending moment wrt centroidal axis.
A - Cross-sectional area.
e - Eccentricity. 70
 CURVED BEAMS

DDB – 6.3
Bending stress of fibre at distance ‘y’

DDB – 6.2

Bending stress of inner fibre

DDB – 6.2

Bending stress of outer fibre DDB – 6.3

DDB – 6.2

71
CURVED BEAM PROBLEM

72
 THEORIES OF FAILURE
1. When a component is subjected to several types of loads, combined
stresses (shear, tensile, bending) are induced.
2. The failures of such components are classified into,
1. Elastic failure.
2. Yielding and fracture.

3. Elastic failure results in excessive elastic deformation, which makes

the machine component unfit to perform its function satisfactory.
4. Yielding results in excessive plastic deformation after the yield point
stress is reached, while fracture results in breaking the component
into two or more pieces. 73
 THEORIES OF FAILURE
1. The principal theories of elastic failure are, DDB 7.3

1. Maximum principal stress theory (Rankine’s theory).

2. Maximum shear stress theory (Coulomb, Tresca and Guest’s
theory).
3. Distortion energy theory (Von Mises and Hencky’s theory).
4. Maximum strain theory (St. Venant’s theory).
5. Maximum total strain energy theory (Haigh’s theory).

74
 MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL STRESS
THEORY (Rankine’s Theory)
1. It states that, “The failure of the mechanical component, subjected to
bi-axial or tri-axial stresses, occurs when the maximum principal
stress reaches the yield or ultimate strength of the material”.
2. If σ1, σ2, and σ3 are the three principal stresses at a point on the
component and,
σ 1 > σ2 > σ3
then according to this theory,
σ1= Syt or σ1= Sut
3. This is suitable for Brittle materials, not for ductile materials.
75
 MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS
THEORY (Guest or Tresca Theory)
1. The theory states that, “The failure of a mechanical component
subjected to bi-axial or tri-axial stresses occurs, when the maximum
shear stress at any point in the component becomes equal to the
maximum shear stress in the standard specimen of the tension
test, when yielding starts”.

2. This theory predicts that the yield strength in shear is half of the yield
strength in tension, i.e.,

Ssy = 0.5 Syt

76
 MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS
THEORY
1. If σ1, σ2, and σ3 are the three principal stresses at a point on the
component, the shear stress on three different planes are given by,
τ12 = (σ1 – σ2) / 2
τ23 = (σ2 – σ3) / 2
τ31 = (σ3 – σ1) / 2
1. Also, For Bi-axial stress

σ1 - σ2 = ±Syt σ1 - σ2 = ±Syt
σ2 – σ3 = ±Syt σ2 = ±Syt
σ3 – σ1 = ±Syt σ1 = ±Syt 77
 DISTORTION – ENERGY THEORY
(Von Mises and Hencky’s Theory)
1. It states that, “The failure of the mechanical component subjected to
bi-axial or tri-axial stresses occurs, when the strain energy of
distortion per unit volume at any point in the component, becomes
equal to the strain energy of distortion per unit volume in a
standard specimen of tension-test, when yielding starts”.

78
DISTORTION – ENERGY
THEORY

79
 MAXIMUM STRAIN THEORY
(Saint Venant’s Theory)
1. It states that, “The failure of the mechanical component subjected to
biaxial or tri-axial stress occurs, when the maximum normal strain
reaches the limiting value of strain of the material determined from
a simple tensile test”.

2. The maximum principal (or normal) strain in a bi-axial stress system

is given by,

80
MAXIMUM STRAIN THEORY

81
 MAXIMUM TOTAL STRAIN
ENERGY THEORY (Haigh’s Theory)
1. It states that, “The failure of the mechanical component subjected to
biaxial or tri-axial stress occurs when the strain energy per unit
volume reaches the limiting strain energy (strain energy at yield
point)”.

82
MAXIMUM TOTAL STRAIN
ENERGY THEORY

1/m = Poisson’s ratio

83
 DDB – 7.8

STRESS CONCENTRATION
1. Stress concentration is defined as, “The localization of high stresses
due to the irregularities present in the component and abrupt changes
of the cross section”.
2. In order to consider the effect of stress concentration and to find out
localized stresses, a factor called stress concentration factor (Kt) is
used.

σ0 & τ0 – Determined by elementary equations.

σmax & τmax – Localized stresses

84
STRESS CONCENTRATION

85
 CAUSES FOR STRESS
CONCENTRATION
1. Variation in material properties – It is assumed that material is
homogeneous. But, there is variation in material properties from one
end to another end due to,
1. Internal cracks and flaws like blow holes.
2. Cavities in welds.
3. Air holes in steel component.
4. Non-metallic or foreign inclusions.

86
 CAUSES FOR STRESS
CONCENTRATION
2. Load Application – Machine component are subjected to forces,
which act either at a point or over a small area of the component.
Since the area is small, the pressure at these points is excessive. This
results in stress concentration.
1. Contact between meshing teeth of driving and driven gear.
2. Contact between cam and the follower.
3. Contact between balls and the races of a ball bearing.

87
 CAUSES FOR STRESS
CONCENTRATION
3. Abrupt changes in cross-section – For assembly considerations, for
mounting gears, sprockets, pulleys and ball bearings, steps are cut on
the shaft and shoulders are provided. Although these are essential,
they create change of cross-section of shaft. This results in stress
concentration at these cross-sections.
4. Discontinuities in the component – Oil holes, keyways and splines
result in discontinuities causing stress concentration.
5. Machining scratches – Surface irregularities are due to machining
scratches, stamp mark or inspection mark, which causes stress conc.
88
STRESS CONCENTRATION
FACTORS

89
 STRESS CONCENTRATION
FACTORS
1. Consider a flat plate with elliptical hole and subjected to tensile force
as shown.
2. Using theory of elasticity, the theoretical stress concentration factor
at the edge of hole is given by,

90
 REDUCTION OF STRESS
CONCENTRATION FACTOR
1. Although it is not possible to completely eliminate the effect of stress
concentration, there are methods to reduce stress concentration.
2. Flow analogy is used to understand the abrupt change of cross-
section or at the discontinuity and reduce the stress concentration.

91
 REDUCTION OF STRESS
CONCENTRATION FACTOR
1. When the cross-section is suddenly reduced, the velocity increases in
order to maintain the same flow and the streamlines become
narrower and narrower and crowd together.
2. At the change of cross-section, the stream lines as well as stress lines
bend, which is sharp and severe, resulting in stress concentration.
3. Therefore, stress concentration can be greatly reduced by reducing
the bending by rounding the corners.

92
 How To REDUCE STRESS
CONCENTRATION FACTOR
Provision of Additional Notches and Holes in Tension Member

93
 How To REDUCE STRESS
CONCENTRATION FACTOR
Provision of Fillet radius, under cutting and Notch for Member in
Bending

94
 How To REDUCE STRESS
CONCENTRATION FACTOR
Drilling Additional Holes for Shaft

95
 How To REDUCE STRESS
CONCENTRATION FACTOR
Reduction of stress concentration in Threaded members

96
Stress Concentration - Problems

97
 DESIGN FOR VARIABLE
LOADING
1. In many applications, the components are subjected to forces, which
are not static, but vary in magnitude with respect to time.
2. The stresses induced due to such forces are called fluctuating
stresses.
3. 80% of failures of mechanical components are due to fatigue failure
resulting from fluctuating stresses.
4. For design analysis, simple models of stress-time relationship are
used, among which sine curve is popular one.

98
TYPES OF CYCLIC STRESSES

99
 FATIGUE FAILURE
1. Fatigue failure is defined as, “Time delayed fracture under cyclic
loading”. Ex: transmission shafts, connecting rods, gears.
2. Fatigue or Endurance limit of a material is defined as, “The
maximum amplitude of completely reversed stress that the standard
specimen can sustain for an unlimited number of cycles without
fatigue failure”.
3. Fatigue life is defined as, “The number of stress cycles that the
standard specimen can complete during the test before the
appearance of the first fatigue crack”.
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 FATIGUE FAILURE
Failure due to Static Load Fatigue failure

Illustrated by Tensile Test – Load is It begins with a crack at some point in the
gradually applied. material. It is sudden and total.

There is sufficient plastic Fatigue cracks are not visible till they
deformation prior to failure, that reach the surface of the component.
gives warning well in advance.

Easy to design a component for It depends upon, number of cycles, mean

static load stress, stress amplitude, stress
concentration, residual stress, corrosion
and creep, making it complex.
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FATIGUE TEST

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 FATIGUE TEST
1. The specimen acts as a rotating beam subjected to bending moment.
2. The number of revolutions before the appearance of the first fatigue
crack is recorded on a revolution counter.
3. Stress amplitude (St) and number of stress cycles (N) are noted.
4. Those readings are used as two co-ordinates for plotting a point on
S-N diagram. This point is called failure point.
5. To determine the endurance limit of a material a number of tests are
to be carried out.

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 S-N CURVE
1. S-N curve is the graphical representation of stress amplitude (St)
versus the number of stress cycles (N) before the fatigue failure on a
log-log graph paper.
2. Endurance limit is affected by size of the component, shape, surface
finish, temperature and notch sensitivity.

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 TYPES OF FATIGUE FAILURE
1. The curve has two regions, which are,
1. Low-cycle fatigue
2. High-cycle fatigue.

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Sl. No Low-cycle Fatigue High-Cycle Fatigue

Any fatigue failure, when the Any fatigue failure, when the
number of stress cycles are less number of stress cycles are more
1
than 1000, is called Low-cycle than 1000, is called High-cycle
fatigue. fatigue

Ex: Failure on studs on truck Ex: Failure of springs, ball

2 wheels, failure of setscrews for bearings or gears subjected to
locating wheels. fluctuating stresses.

Components are designed on the

Components are designed on the
basis of endurance limit stress.
basis of ultimate tensile strength
3 S-N curve, Soderberg line, Gerber
or yield strength with suitable
line or Goodman diagram are
FOS. 106
 NOTCH SENSITIVITY
1.

107
 ENDURANCE LIMIT –
APPROXIMATE ESTIMATION

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 SODERBERG AND GOODMAN
LINES
1. When a component is subjected to fluctuating stresses, there is a
mean stress (σm) as well as stress amplitude (σa).
2. It is observed that the mean stress component has effect on fatigue
failure when it is present in combination with alternating component.
3. The fatigue diagram for this case is drawn taking mean stress in
abscissa and stress amplitude on the ordinate.
4. The magnitude of σm and σa depend upon the magnitudes of
maximum and minimum force acting on the component.

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SODERBERG AND GOODMAN
LINES

110
 SODERBERG AND GOODMAN
LINES
1. Gerber Lines – A parabolic curve joining Se on the ordinate to Sut on

the abscissa is called Gerber line.

2. Soderberg Lines – A straight line joining Se on the ordinate to Syt on

the abscissa is called the Soderberg line.

3. Goodman Lines – A straight line joining Se on the ordinate to Sut on

the abscissa is called the Goodman line.

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 GOODMAN LINE
1. Goodman line is widely used as criterion of fatigue failure, when the
component is subjected to mean stress as well as stress amplitude.
2. It is because of,
1. It is safe from design considerations because it is completely
inside the failure points of test data.
2. The equation of straight line is simple, compared with equation of
parabolic curve.
3. It is not necessary to construct scale diagram as a rough sketch is
enough to construct fatigue diagram.
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 MODIFIED GOODMAN
DIAGRAMS
1. The components, which are subjected to fluctuating stresses are
designed by constructing the modified Goodman diagrams.
2. For the purpose of design, the problems are classified into,
1. Components subjected to fluctuating axial or bending stresses.
2. Components subjected to fluctuating torsional shear stresses.

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Components subjected to fluctuating
axial or bending stresses

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Components subjected to fluctuating
torsional shear stresses

115
THANK YOU

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