JOINTS - GEOLOGY

Historical geology Is the branch which deals with the history of the rocks of the earth’s crust with special emphasis on their approximate time of formation and the climate changes they have undergone since their formation. ELEMENTS OF CORRELATION, STRUCTURAL FEATURES, METHOD OF STRATIGRAPHIC CORRELATION , Three principle kinds of correlations

Introduction Stratigraphy is the study of strata (sedimentary layers) in the Earth's crust, it is the relationship between rocks and time. Stratigrapher are concerned with the observation, description and interpretation of direct and tangible evidence in rocks to determine the history of the Earth. The combination of sedimentology and stratigraphy allows us to build up pictures of the Earth’s surface at different times in different places and relate them to each other through the relative ages of rocks A more modern way of stating the same principle is that the laws of nature (laws of chemistry and physics) that have operated in the same way since the beginning of time. And thus if we understand the physical and chemical principles by which nature operates, we can assume that nature operated the same way in the past. Basic principles of stratigraphy Principle of Uniformitarianism Principle of Lateral Horizontality Principle of  Superposition Principle of Cross-cutting Relations Principle of Inclusions Principle of Chilled Margins Correlation

Climbing ripple laminations are formed by the superimposition of migrating ripples where deposition occurs rapidly during ripple migration, causing the ripples to climb upon one another rather than migrate laterally. They are classified based on the angle of climbing relative to the stoss side angle, and form under conditions of abundant suspended sediment supply and rapid burial, preserving the original rippled layers. Climbing ripples indicate deposition exceeded migration and are found in environments with high sedimentation rates like river floodplains, point bars, and deltas.

The document discusses the texture of igneous rocks. Texture refers to the size, shape, nature and arrangement of constituents in a rock. It is best studied through thin sections under a microscope. There are three main factors for describing texture: degree of crystallization, crystal/grain size, and fabric. Crystal size can range from microscopic to visible by the naked eye. Fabric considers crystal shapes, sizes, and their mutual relationships, which can be equigranular, inequigranular, intergrowths, directive patterns, or intergranular. Texture provides insights into the cooling and crystallization history of magma.

This powerpoint presentation gives some basic information regarding structural geology,folds,joints,faults etc.

Sedimentary rocks form through the accumulation and lithification of sediments. Sediments are produced through the weathering and erosion of existing rocks. Once transported, sediments are deposited in layers and compacted over time into sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rocks can be classified based on their composition (e.g. siliciclastic rocks like sandstone form from clastic particles) and texture (e.g. grain size, sorting, rounding influence the rock type). Sedimentary structures provide clues about the depositional environment.

This document provides an overview of fold classification and its elements. It begins with an introduction to folds and their historical development. It then describes the key elements of folds such as hinge points, limbs, and axial planes. The majority of the document focuses on various systems for classifying folds based on criteria like fold closure, symmetry, plunge of the axial plane, and interlimb angle. It discusses classifications proposed by Ramsay and Fluety. In conclusion, it provides a geometrical classification of folds based on dip isogons, axial plane thickness, and orthogonal thickness as defined by Ramsay.

Lineation refers to any linear structure that occurs repetitively in rock, such as elongated pebbles or the intersection of two foliations. Lineations can indicate the direction of tectonic transport, though opinions differ on whether they are parallel or perpendicular to transport. Foliation refers to repetitive layering in metamorphic rocks caused by shearing forces or pressure differences. Types of foliation include fracture cleavage, crenulation cleavage, slaty cleavage, and schistosity. Lineations and foliations provide important clues about a rock's deformation history.

Igneous rock forms through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. It is classified based on several properties including genesis, texture, color, and chemical composition. Based on genesis, igneous rocks are classified as plutonic (cooled at depth), hypabyssal (cooled at shallow depth), or volcanic (cooled on the surface). Texture classifications include phaneritic, aphenitic, porphyritic, and poikilitic. Color classifications are based on the percentage of mafic minerals and include leucocratic, mesocratic, melanocratic, and hypermelanic. Chemical composition classifications include peraluminous, metaaluminous, subaluminous, and several

This document discusses stress and strain ellipsoids in structural geology. It defines stress as a force applied over an area that causes rock deformation. Stress can be tensional, compressional, or shear. Strain is the response of rock to stress and describes the change in shape of an object under stress. Stress and strain are represented geometrically using ellipsoids. The relationship between stress and strain ellipsoids is that the greatest and least axes are opposite. The orientation of stress and strain ellipsoids provides information about the deformative forces acting on rocks.

Geological mapping involves systematically observing and recording rock exposures and structural features in the field to produce maps that show the spatial distribution and relationships of rock units. The document discusses different types of geological maps including reconnaissance, regional, detailed, and specialized maps. It also describes common mapping techniques such as traversing, exposure mapping, drilling, underground mapping, and photo-geology. Field equipment used in mapping includes hammers, chisels, compasses, clinometers, tapes, and notebooks.

This document discusses hydrogeology, which is the study of groundwater. It begins by explaining the hydrologic cycle, in which water evaporates from bodies of water and transpirates from plants, condenses into clouds and precipitates back to the ground as rain or snow. Some precipitation infiltrates into the ground to become groundwater. The document then discusses groundwater occurrence, movement through aquifers, and factors that influence it like porosity, permeability and lithology. Finally, it describes the vertical distribution of groundwater into the unsaturated zone above the water table and saturated zone below it.

This lecture includes the fold terminology and classification of folds based of different criteria. Classification of folds based on: Direction of closing Attitude of axial surface Size of interlimb angle Profile Ramsay Classification of folds

This presentation summarizes igneous rock structures formed from the cooling and solidification of magma. It describes both intrusive and extrusive igneous rock structures. Intrusive structures include concordant structures like laccoliths, lopoliths, sills, and discordant structures like batholiths, stocks, dikes, and volcanic necks. Extrusive structures include primary structures like pillow structures, lava flow structures, vesicular structures, and columnar structures. The presentation provides examples and diagrams to illustrate different igneous rock formations and the geological processes that create their characteristic shapes and features.

Sedimentary texture can be useful in interpreting the mechanisms and environment of deposition. It also has major control over the porosity and permeability of sediment.

This presentation slide very helpful for Understanding Geological Feature or Earth Science few impotent topics.

This document provides an overview of sedimentary rocks, including their classification and common types. It discusses how sedimentary rocks form from sediments produced by weathering and are later cemented. The document classifies sedimentary rocks into detrital rocks (formed from rock fragments), chemically formed rocks like limestone, and residual deposits like laterite and soils. Detrital rocks like sandstone and shale are the most abundant sedimentary rocks, comprising around 95% of sedimentary layers and 4% and 0.75% of the Earth's crust, respectively.

Joints are fractures in rocks where there has been no displacement of the rock on either side of the fracture. There are two main types of joints - systematic joints which show regular patterns, and non-systematic joints which are irregular. Joints form through various processes including contraction during cooling, expansion and contraction from temperature changes, and tectonic stresses. Joints are important in geology as they influence rock strength and fluid flow underground.

This document discusses fractures and joints in rocks. It defines fractures, faults, and joints, and describes how they form from brittle deformation in response to stress. Joints form in sets with similar orientations and make up joint systems. The document discusses causes of fractures from tension and compression, and the different modes of cracking. It also describes the geometry of joints, including their orientation, scale, shapes, trajectories, spacing, intersections and terminations. Joint spacing depends on factors like bed thickness, lithology, structural position and strain.

This document provides information about different types of joints in rock formations. It discusses non-systematic and systematic joints, and describes various systematic joint sets defined by their orientation relative to geological structures like fold axes. It also categorizes joints based on their formation mechanism, such as tectonic joints, hydraulic joints, exfoliation joints, unloading joints, and cooling joints. The document provides examples and explanations of each joint type. It discusses factors that influence joint spacing, such as bed thickness, lithology, and tensile strength. Finally, it considers the origin and interpretation of joints in geological contexts involving uplift, intrusion, pore pressure changes, and regional divergence.

Joints are fractures in rocks that divide the rock mass into blocks. There are three main types of joints based on their orientation: strike joints parallel to bedding, dip joints parallel to slope, and oblique joints with other orientations. Joints are classified based on their pattern, geometry, and origin. Unconformities represent gaps or erosional surfaces in the geological record where rock layers are missing. The main types are angular, disconformity, and nonconformity. Both joints and unconformities are important in engineering projects as they can impact stability, water flow, and excavation difficulties.

Geological structures form in the Earth's crust due to geological causes. There are many types of structures including folds, faults, and joints. Folds form when rock layers bend under stress rather than breaking. Common fold types include anticlines, synclines, domes, and basins. Faults form when rock layers fracture and move relative to each other, and include normal, reverse, and strike-slip faults. Joints are fractures where the rock splits but there is no relative movement, and can form due to processes like cooling, tectonics, and unloading.

This document discusses different aspects of structural geology and stratigraphy. It describes joints as fractures in rocks where there has been no relative displacement of the rock blocks. It defines different types of joints like open joints, closed joints, sheet joints, columnar joints, and bedding joints. It also classifies joints as tension joints, shear joints, and compression joints. The document then discusses unconformities as gaps in rock layers formed due to periods of erosion or non-deposition. It describes different types of unconformities like angular unconformities, disconformities, local unconformities, nonconformities, and regional unconformities.

What are joints? •Terminology related to joints •Classification •Engineering considerations Strike joints Dip joint: Oblique joint: bedding joints. Tension joints: Shear joints: Compression joints:

what is a geologic structure? Plate Tectonics STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY & GEOTECTONICS Kinds of Folds Fold Classification Faults Dip-slip Faults

This document provides an overview of geological structures and the forces that cause them. It discusses stress, strain and rock strength, and how rocks deform through elastic, plastic and brittle mechanisms. The main types of stresses are described as tensional, compressional and shear. Geological structures include folds, fractures, joints and faults, which form through buckling or fracturing of rocks in response to these stresses. Specific fold types like anticlines and synclines are defined. Fractures include joints and faults, with joints involving no displacement and faults involving relative displacement of rock layers.

Tectonites are deformed rocks whose fabric is due to systematic movement under external forces. Their fabric reflects the deformation history. Fabric includes the geometric arrangement of mineral grains, layers, and other features at a scale that includes many samples. Tectonites can have planar (S-tectonite), linear (L-tectonite), or both (L-S tectonite) fabrics indicating different strain types. Foliations like cleavage, schistosity, and gneissosity are planar fabrics that cause rocks to break along parallel surfaces. Lineations indicate preferred linear fabrics, such as fold axes, boudins, and quartz rods. The orientation and interaction of foliations and lineations provide information about tect

Joints are fractures in rocks where the rock has broken, creating two free surfaces. Joints form due to contraction from cooling, consolidation, or tectonic stresses. Joints are classified based on their formation process or geometry. Tectonic joints form from differential stress and may indicate past stress orientations. Unloading joints form from uplift and erosion reducing compressive loads. Cooling joints commonly form vertically in cooling lava.

Grade 8 Integrated Science Chapter 12 Lesson 1 on relative-age dating of fossils and rock layers. This lesson explains how scientists use rock layers to determine a age of a rock or fossil compared to others. The goal of this lesson is for students to be able to correctly order rock layers by age and to know the different disconformities and nonconformities.

Structural geology deals with the geometry, distribution, and formation of rock structures within the Earth. Rocks can deform in either brittle or ductile manners depending on factors like temperature, pressure, strain rate, and composition. Brittle deformation results in fractures and faults while ductile deformation forms folds. Folds and faults provide evidence of past deformation events. Strike and dip are used to describe the orientation of planar geological features. Unconformities represent gaps in the geologic record due to periods of erosion or non-deposition between rock layers.

The principle of uniformitarianism states that current geological processes like volcanism, erosion, and weathering are the same as those in the past. Rock layers are formed through sedimentary processes, where fragmented or crystalline sediments are deposited and compacted over time. Stratigraphy studies the description, correlation, and interpretation of stratified sediments and rocks. Rock layers form through the process of stratification, where sediments or lava flows are deposited in layers.

This document discusses the classification of joints in rocks. It describes two main classifications: geometrical and genetic. Geometrical classification is based on the orientation of joints relative to rock beds and includes strike, dip, oblique, and bedding joints. Genetic classification considers the forces that formed the joints, dividing them into tension, shear, and compression joints. Joints are important in civil engineering and geology as they can cause weaknesses in rocks and influence landslides.

Structural geology is the study of geological structures like faults, folds, and joints. It provides important information for fields like engineering geology, economic geology, and plate tectonics. Folds form when rock layers bend under pressure and heat. The limbs of folds dip inward or outward forming anticlines and synclines. Faults form when rocks break under stress, producing displacement along a fracture. The hanging wall moves relative to the footwall. Joints are fractures without displacement that form to relieve stress. Unconformities represent gaps in the geological record due to erosion. They provide evidence about past environmental conditions. Structural features must be considered for engineering projects due to their effects on rock strength and fluid flow. Plate t

Sedimentary rocks are formed by the accumulation and lithification of sediments. Sediments are produced through weathering and erosion of older rocks and transported by water, wind, or ice. They accumulate in layers over time in bodies of water or other depressions. Lithification occurs as the sediments are buried and compacted by the weight of overlying materials. This process cements the sediments together into solid rock. Relative dating methods determine the age of rocks in relation to other rocks by analyzing principles like superposition, cross-cutting relationships, and fossil succession. Absolute dating uses radiometric methods to determine the precise ages of rocks and fossils by measuring the decay of radioactive isotopes. Commonly used isotopes include potassium

This document discusses metamorphic rock textures, specifically foliation and compositional layering. Foliation results from the parallel alignment of sheet silicate minerals due to differential stress during metamorphism. Compositional layering in metamorphic rocks like gneiss develops through several processes, including preservation of original layering, transposition of bedding planes, and solution/reprecipitation of minerals along planes perpendicular to stress. Both foliation and layering provide information about the stress fields active during metamorphism.

This document discusses metamorphic rock textures, specifically foliation and compositional layering. Foliation results from the parallel alignment of sheet silicate minerals due to differential stress during metamorphism. Compositional layering in metamorphic rocks like gneiss develops through several processes, including preservation of original layering, transposition of bedding planes, and solution/reprecipitation of minerals along planes perpendicular to stress. Both foliation and layering provide information about the stress fields active during metamorphism.

Joints are fractures where the two walls remain in contact without shear displacement. They form due to regional tectonics, folding, faulting, or stress release during uplift or cooling. Joint spacing depends on factors like lithology, bed thickness, structural position, and strain. Regularly spaced joints may form due to pore pressure variations, stress shadows, or inter-layer forces controlling where new joints can form. Joint orientation provides information about a reservoir's permeability anisotropy.

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