Peter J Jankowski
Bethel University, Counseling, Faculty Member
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
ABSTRACT Informed by Chaps. 1 and 2, Chaps. 3–6 now turn to specific models of psychopathology, namely, parentification, parental alienating behavior, bullying, and Stockholm syndrome. More specifically, Chap. 3 introduces the construct... more
ABSTRACT Informed by Chaps. 1 and 2, Chaps. 3–6 now turn to specific models of psychopathology, namely, parentification, parental alienating behavior, bullying, and Stockholm syndrome. More specifically, Chap. 3 introduces the construct of parentification and explores how this construct can lead to a range of roles, relational, and generational outcomes, including psychopathology. This specific chapter explores how relational competence theory (RCT) and other theories can serve as a foundation to explain multiple and divergent outcomes (e.g., pathological and normative) of parentification. In addition, tenets of the DT are used to elucidate roles, responsibilities, and processes related to parentification. Finally, Chap. 3 provides readers with a brief overview of the seminal empirical and clinical literature on outcomes associated with parentification.
Research Interests:
This study addressed the lack of research simultaneously examining multiple dimensions of religiousness when predicting rape myth acceptance, and extended prior findings of a mediating role for right-wing authoritarianism (i.e.,... more
This study addressed the lack of research simultaneously examining multiple dimensions of religiousness when predicting rape myth acceptance, and extended prior findings of a mediating role for right-wing authoritarianism (i.e., uncritical submission to authority and aggressive attitude toward those who do not conform to social norms) in the association between religiousness and prejudice. The sample consisted of 99 undergraduate and graduate students ( M age = 31.87 years, 66.7% female, 80.82% White, and 93% Christian affiliated) from a religiously affiliated university in the Midwest United States. As hypothesized, dimensions of religiousness exhibited differential associations with rape myth acceptance. Religious motivation characterized by openness and exploration (i.e., quest religiousness) was a significant negative predictor of rape myth acceptance, directly, and indirectly through right-wing authoritarianism. In contrast, rigid adherence to religious beliefs, assumed to be “right” and absolutely true (i.e., religious fundamentalism), and extrinsically motivated religiousness each exhibited a positive association with rape myth acceptance through right-wing authoritarianism. In addition, internally motivated religiousness and religious fundamentalism each moderated the nonlinear effect for quest predicting rape myth acceptance. Findings suggest that uncritical religious and secular submission to external authorities or uncommitted and nonexploring religiousness may have increased the extent to which persons adhered to rape myths, whereas religious exploration was protective. Practical implications center on the need for socioculturally relevant prevention and intervention efforts with religious identifying college students.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
This article addresses selected effects of postmodernism on spirituality and contains a discussion of implications for promoting change in counseling. Because aspects of postmodern spirituality can prevent change, spiritual transformation... more
This article addresses selected effects of postmodernism on spirituality and contains a discussion of implications for promoting change in counseling. Because aspects of postmodern spirituality can prevent change, spiritual transformation may need to occur in the life of the client. Spiritual transformation is conceptualized as a process of helping the client develop resilient spirituality, which can enable the client to overcome his or her difficulties. Resilient spirituality involves finding meaning in adherence to a set of larger beliefs, the exercise of faith as a way of knowing, and an experience of connection with God and others.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
The authors present an experiential group approach designed to support better writing skills for family therapists. Key factors such as trust, collaboration, absence of hierarchy, epistemological similarity and structural strategies are... more
The authors present an experiential group approach designed to support better writing skills for family therapists. Key factors such as trust, collaboration, absence of hierarchy, epistemological similarity and structural strategies are identified as contributing to the success of the group. Outcomes and suggestions for future implementations and replication are provided.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
A distinctively Anabaptist-Mennonite (A-M) approach to intimate partner violence (IPV) is presented, based on the ideals of nonviolent peacemaking, forgiveness, and reconciliation. These same ideals undergirded the first formal... more
A distinctively Anabaptist-Mennonite (A-M) approach to intimate partner violence (IPV) is presented, based on the ideals of nonviolent peacemaking, forgiveness, and reconciliation. These same ideals undergirded the first formal restorative justice (RJ) practice and continue to guide the restorative vision. The use of RJ practices as a response to IPV is controversial, as is the role of forgiveness and the related constructs of repentance and reconciliation in IPV intervention. The tension between A-M belief and practice, RJ, and IPV is explored. A parallel is drawn between RJ practices and conjoint clinical interventions for IPV. Proponents of RJ practices and conjoint interventions are united by the goal of improving the effectiveness of treatment for IPV, for both offenders and victims. RJ practices and conjoint interventions appear to be useful adjunctive approaches for some narrowly defined instances of IPV. When grounded in careful evidence-based assessment, and when used in coordination with traditional clinical and criminal justice approaches, a more comprehensive and effective treatment approach to alleviating IPV seems possible.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Prior research on the religiousness/spirituality—well-being association has largely neglected the dimension of religious/spiritual exploration, and the recent trend examining virtues, religiousness/spirituality, and well-being has... more
Prior research on the religiousness/spirituality—well-being association has largely neglected the dimension of religious/spiritual exploration, and the recent trend examining virtues, religiousness/spirituality, and well-being has predominantly involved cross-sectional data. We expanded prior research by analyzing a longitudinal model consisting of three waves of data, approximately 6 months between waves, that explored the associations between experiential avoidance, humility, patience, religious/spiritual exploration, and distinct dimensions of well-being. We used joy as an indicator of the positive emotion dimension of subjective well-being, and presence of meaning in life as an indicator of eudaimonic well-being. We used a diverse sample of emerging religious leaders attending 18 graduate theological schools across North America ( N = 283; M age = 29.81; SD = 0.51; range = 19–62; 47.7% female; 61.8% White). We observed a negative influence for initial levels of exploration on later joy and meaning in life, when initial levels of experiential avoidance were high and humility was low. In contrast, we found a positive influence for initial levels of exploration on later joy and meaning in life, when initial levels of experiential avoidance remained high and humility was high. Initial levels of patience exhibited a positive influence on meaning in life 1 year later, indirectly via greater levels of exploration at time 2. Practical implications centered on providing opportunities for individuals to explore alternative beliefs, practices and experiences, and encouraging engagement in humility and patience self-cultivation practices, each of which could move them toward greater well-being.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Humility is a key virtue in most religious traditions, and empirical evidence links it with healthy religious leader development. Psychological evaluation often forms part of the vocational discernment process for religious leaders. We... more
Humility is a key virtue in most religious traditions, and empirical evidence links it with healthy religious leader development. Psychological evaluation often forms part of the vocational discernment process for religious leaders. We evaluated development of the clinician-rated humility scale (CRHS) within the clergy candidate psychological evaluation context at a community mental health center in the United States. In Study 1, we examined inter-rater reliability of the CRHS using three methods across 10 calibration tests with clergy candidates (female = 1, male = 9; average age = 34.6 years). Combined convenience and comprehensiveness provided the best method for obtaining the highest agreement. In Study 2, we evaluated the internal and external factor structure of the CRHS using clergy candidates ( n = 70) receiving psychological testing (29% female, 70% male; average age = 34.5 years). A final six-item version of the scale showed acceptable model fit, with evidence of a unidimensional factor structure, good internal consistency, and theoretically consistent associations with correlates. The results suggested the CRHS tapped dimensions of caring for others, openness toward personal beliefs, and self-growth. This observer-rated humility scale holds potential in conjunction with self-report measures for use in clinical assessment and research on client humility.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
This article discusses the potential utility and difficulties presented by the development of a universal relational diagnostic system (RDS). The history and current status of diagnostic concepts within the general mental health field are... more
This article discusses the potential utility and difficulties presented by the development of a universal relational diagnostic system (RDS). The history and current status of diagnostic concepts within the general mental health field are reviewed to provide a context for discussing the range of factors involved in the RDS movement and to highlight the practical and conceptual implications from such a system. Considerations and recommendations are provided to enhance the utility and compatibility of the RDS with contemporary clinical and counseling practice.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Prior research on the religiousness/spirituality—well-being association has largely neglected the dimension of religious/spiritual exploration, and the recent trend examining virtues, religiousness/spirituality, and well-being has... more
Prior research on the religiousness/spirituality—well-being association has largely neglected the dimension of religious/spiritual exploration, and the recent trend examining virtues, religiousness/spirituality, and well-being has predominantly involved cross-sectional data. We expanded prior research by analyzing a longitudinal model consisting of three waves of data, approximately 6 months between waves, that explored the associations between experiential avoidance, humility, patience, religious/spiritual exploration, and distinct dimensions of well-being. We used joy as an indicator of the positive emotion dimension of subjective well-being, and presence of meaning in life as an indicator of eudaimonic well-being. We used a diverse sample of emerging religious leaders attending 18 graduate theological schools across North America ( N = 283; M age = 29.81; SD = 0.51; range = 19–62; 47.7% female; 61.8% White). We observed a negative influence for initial levels of exploration on later joy and meaning in life, when initial levels of experiential avoidance were high and humility was low. In contrast, we found a positive influence for initial levels of exploration on later joy and meaning in life, when initial levels of experiential avoidance remained high and humility was high. Initial levels of patience exhibited a positive influence on meaning in life 1 year later, indirectly via greater levels of exploration at time 2. Practical implications centered on providing opportunities for individuals to explore alternative beliefs, practices and experiences, and encouraging engagement in humility and patience self-cultivation practices, each of which could move them toward greater well-being.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Humility is a key virtue in most religious traditions, and empirical evidence links it with healthy religious leader development. Psychological evaluation often forms part of the vocational discernment process for religious leaders. We... more
Humility is a key virtue in most religious traditions, and empirical evidence links it with healthy religious leader development. Psychological evaluation often forms part of the vocational discernment process for religious leaders. We evaluated development of the clinician-rated humility scale (CRHS) within the clergy candidate psychological evaluation context at a community mental health center in the United States. In Study 1, we examined inter-rater reliability of the CRHS using three methods across 10 calibration tests with clergy candidates (female = 1, male = 9; average age = 34.6 years). Combined convenience and comprehensiveness provided the best method for obtaining the highest agreement. In Study 2, we evaluated the internal and external factor structure of the CRHS using clergy candidates ( n = 70) receiving psychological testing (29% female, 70% male; average age = 34.5 years). A final six-item version of the scale showed acceptable model fit, with evidence of a unidimensional factor structure, good internal consistency, and theoretically consistent associations with correlates. The results suggested the CRHS tapped dimensions of caring for others, openness toward personal beliefs, and self-growth. This observer-rated humility scale holds potential in conjunction with self-report measures for use in clinical assessment and research on client humility.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
A rising interest in virtues in psychotherapy has spurred empirical exploration of their influence on both mental health symptoms and well‐being. As such, we explored the virtue ethics premise that growth in the virtue of humility may... more
A rising interest in virtues in psychotherapy has spurred empirical exploration of their influence on both mental health symptoms and well‐being. As such, we explored the virtue ethics premise that growth in the virtue of humility may ameliorate mental health symptoms and promote well‐being. We also examined whether change in experiential avoidance was a mechanism of these changes. Using a multiple simultaneous latent change score model, we analysed latent changes among humility, experiential avoidance and the outcomes of symptoms and social well‐being in a sample of clients (N = 778; M = 31.56 years of age; 59.4% female; 78.1% White) who received outpatient contemporary relational psychotherapy at a community mental health training clinic. Results indicated that change in humility corresponded to changes in symptoms and social well‐being through change in experiential avoidance. Clinical implications centre on clinicians attending closely to client experiences of oscillation between self‐abasement and self‐superiority and utilising small ways within the therapeutic encounter to foster humility.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
This study explored change in intercultural competence among masters-level counseling psychology students in a 14-week multicultural counseling course at a religiously-affiliated university in the United States. The group showed an... more
This study explored change in intercultural competence among masters-level counseling psychology students in a 14-week multicultural counseling course at a religiously-affiliated university in the United States. The group showed an overall increase in intercultural competence from pre- to post-test during their time in the course. Spirituality variables were measured at pre-test as predictors of change in intercultural competence. Spiritual grandiosity was negatively associated with change in intercultural competence while petitionary prayer was positively associated with change. Implications are considered for multicultural training in religious contexts.Multicultural education and training in the mental health professions has grown tremendously over the past thirty-five years. The ethical codes of all the major mental health professions mandate culturally competent treatment, and multicultural competence has become an essential goal in training programs (e.g., Arrendondo et al., 1996). Empirical research on multicultural education interventions has also increased. Smith et al. (2006) conducted meta-analyses of quantitative studies of multicultural education, most of which evaluated a semester-long course in multicultural counseling. They found that multicultural education is effective across various participant demographics and study design characteristics. On average, participants experienced a level of positive change similar to the overall effect of psychotherapy compared to no treatment controls (see Lambert & Bergin, 1994).Malott (2010) conducted a literature review based on nine published studies of a single semester- or quarter-long course in multicultural counseling. Like Smith et al. (2006), Malott noted the general effectiveness of multicultural education but highlighted the importance of theorydriven approaches. She also pointed out the multidimensionality of student and instructor identities and called for consideration of various aspects of identity, such as spirituality, on the processes of developing multicultural competence. The present study addressed these two recommendations and explored change in the intercultural competence of graduate counseling psychology trainees during a 14-week multicultural counseling course.Intercultural CompetenceWe heeded the recommendation of both Smith et al. (2006) and Malott (2010) and utilized a theory-driven approach to design the educational intervention. More specifically, we used the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS; Bennett, 1993) which offered the advantage of employing the Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI; Hammer, Bennett, & Wiseman, 2003) as the outcome measure for intercultural competence.Intercultural competence is more specific than multicultural competence with a focus on effective ways of relating across cultural differences, rather than a broad array of diversity factors and equity concerns encompassed by the term "multicultural" (Pusch, 2004). The DMIS conceptualizes intercultural competence as a developmental process which integrates cognitive, affective, and behavioral dimensions (King & Baxter Magolda, 2005). IDI scores have been positively associated with both depth of multicultural experiences and moral development (Endicott, Bock, & Narvaez, 2003). Use of the IDI overcomes the susceptibility of self-report measures to social desirability effects. The latter is a potential limitation in many of the previous studies evaluating multicultural education (Smith et al., 2006).Developmental Model of Intercultural SensitivityBennett (1993, 2004) described different interpretive orientations that constitute an awareness and sensitivity continuum from ethnocentrism to intercultural competence. Intercultural competence includes capacities to both accurately perceive differences and commonalities, and act in culturally-appropriate and effective ways (Sandage & Harden, 2011). …
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
This article discusses the potential utility and difficulties presented by the development of a universal relational diagnostic system (RDS). The history and current status of diagnostic concepts within the general mental health field are... more
This article discusses the potential utility and difficulties presented by the development of a universal relational diagnostic system (RDS). The history and current status of diagnostic concepts within the general mental health field are reviewed to provide a context for discussing the range of factors involved in the RDS movement and to highlight the practical and conceptual implications from such a system. Considerations and recommendations are provided to enhance the utility and compatibility of the RDS with contemporary clinical and counseling practice.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Emerging adulthood seems to be a period of not only heightened risk for mental health symptoms, but also growth toward greater well‐being. Mental health disorders are highest among adults ages 18 to 29 years, yet emerging adults are... more
Emerging adulthood seems to be a period of not only heightened risk for mental health symptoms, but also growth toward greater well‐being. Mental health disorders are highest among adults ages 18 to 29 years, yet emerging adults are unlikely to access treatment. However, emerging adults can also experience gains in life satisfaction and interpersonal functioning, and mental health treatment for emerging adults tends to reduce symptoms. This dialectic of risk and growth has prompted a call for a specialty clinical practice focused on emerging adults and highlights a need for treatment effectiveness research that examines symptoms and well‐being. We examined the influence of risk variables on change in a sample of emerging adult clients (N = 187; mean age = 25.82 years; 62.0% female; 75.9% White). Results provide evidence of improvement, conditioned by risk variables. Implications included integrating distinct interventions to reduce symptoms and promote well‐being and addressing intra‐ and interpersonal processes associated with positive development.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
The present study tested two models of the association between humility, differentiation-of-self (DoS), and intercultural competence among graduate trainees in the helping professions. The sample consisted of 75 graduate students from a... more
The present study tested two models of the association between humility, differentiation-of-self (DoS), and intercultural competence among graduate trainees in the helping professions. The sample consisted of 75 graduate students from a Protestant-affiliated university in the United States. Results indicated that DoS mediated the positive association between humility and intercultural competence. Results therefore supported a definition of intercultural competence as the ability to effectively navigate interpersonal difference. Implications are considered for training in intercultural competence within couple and family therapy.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Religious/spiritual communities in the United States hold significant differences in the relative valuing of social order and progress toward social justice, and religious/spiritual leaders play an influential role in fostering those... more
Religious/spiritual communities in the United States hold significant differences in the relative valuing of social order and progress toward social justice, and religious/spiritual leaders play an influential role in fostering those values. This recognition has prompted calls for theological education to revise the process of student formation, equipping them to address an increasingly diverse social world and the social disparities within their larger communities. Right-wing authoritarianism tends to be associated with a preference for social order and various forms of prejudice, and negatively associated with prosocial attitudes and behaviors. However, there is a limited amount of research examining associations between right-wing authoritarianism and the prosocial constructs of social justice commitment and compassion. The present study explored the longitudinal associations between right-wing authoritarianism, social justice commitment, and compassion in a sample of graduate students from 18 Christian seminaries across North America over two and a half years of their education ( N = 580; Mage = 31.50; 47.3% female; 62.9% White). Longitudinal data analysis indicated that right-wing authoritarianism exerted a negative influence on social justice commitment and compassion, during the initial time interval which then faded over time. Results also indicated a reciprocal process among right-wing authoritarianism and social justice commitment. Practical implications centered on the potential for interventions targeting the reduction of right-wing authoritarianism to increase social justice commitment and compassion, and interventions targeting greater social justice commitment to lower right-wing authoritarianism.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Vulnerable narcissism (VN), a central construct in Kohutian self-psychology, lags behind grandiose narcissism in the empirical research literature, yet a growing body of evidence suggests important implications for VN in relation to... more
Vulnerable narcissism (VN), a central construct in Kohutian self-psychology, lags behind grandiose narcissism in the empirical research literature, yet a growing body of evidence suggests important implications for VN in relation to mental health and psychosocial functioning. Recent empirical research in the field of positive psychology has found negative associations between VN and the relational virtues of forgiveness and humility, while other studies have supported Kohut’s theorized connection between VN and depression. The current study tested a proposed theoretical model of the relations between VN and (a) interpersonal forgiveness, (b) humility, and (c) depression with differentiation of self (DoS) as a mediator of the effects in a sample of graduate students in the helping professions (N = 162) at a Protestant-affiliated university in the United States. VN was operationalized based on Self Psychology and utilizing measures of (a) idealization needs, (b) goal instability, and (c) hiding the self. The model in this study also draws on Kohutian and Bowenian understandings of DoS as an indicator of self-cohesion and capacities for self-regulation of emotions and interpersonal stress. Results based on Structural Equations Modeling supported the proposed theoretical model for 3 of the 4 measures of VN with DoS mediating the relationships between the predictor variables of approach idealization, goal instability, and hiding the self and the dependent variables of depression, forgiveness, and humility. The findings suggest the potential benefits of integrating research in psychoanalysis, family systems, and positive psychology. Implications are considered for future research, training of helping professionals, and clinical practice.
Research Interests:
The COVID‐19 pandemic necessitated abrupt and substantial changes in daily life, and public health strategies intended to protect physical health can negatively affect mental health and well‐being, especially for individuals with... more
The COVID‐19 pandemic necessitated abrupt and substantial changes in daily life, and public health strategies intended to protect physical health can negatively affect mental health and well‐being, especially for individuals with pre‐existing mental health challenges. For this study, we surveyed a sample of clients (N = 94) in the summer of 2020 from a community mental health clinic in the northeast United States. A mixed‐methods, concurrent triangulation design was used to (a) identify client subgroups on indicators of mental health (i.e. anxious and depressive symptoms) and emotional, psychological, and social well‐being using latent profile analysis (LPA), and (b) within these subgroups, examine qualitative, thematic patterns in self‐described challenges, benefits and learning related to the pandemic. The LPA revealed five distinct subgroups with various levels of symptoms and well‐being, including Stagnant (moderate symptoms/moderate well‐being), Languishing (high symptoms/low w...
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Throughout the history of psychology, scholars and practitioners have sought to understand religious/spiritual (R/S) development and its intersections with well-being. Several models of R/S development have been proposed, but they have... more
Throughout the history of psychology, scholars and practitioners have sought to understand religious/spiritual (R/S) development and its intersections with well-being. Several models of R/S development have been proposed, but they have neither been well-integrated with each other nor studied and applied broadly in the field of positive psychology. This chapter’s purpose is to draw on existing longitudinal research on R/S development to propose an integrative theory for guiding developmental science and practice on religion, spirituality, and positive psychology. This Positive Religious and Spiritual Development (PRSD) theory posits that people’s religiousness/spirituality (a) is motivated by goals designed to meet psychological needs (e.g., for acceptance, predictability, and competence); (b) consists of mental/neural representations (stored beliefs, emotions, action tendencies, and physiological responses) and R/S habits that develop and change through relational experiences at the...