Gustavo Tomás

1Very few studies to date have evaluated experimentally the effects of blood parasites on physiological variables and breeding performance in wild birds. In this study, blood parasitaemias of female Blue Tits Cyanistes caeruleus L. were experimentally manipulated to assess subsequent changes in immunoglobulin level and parental effort during reproduction.2At the beginning of the nestling period, female Blue Tits were medicated with a high dose (HD) or a low dose (LD) of the antimalarial Primaquine, or with saline solution (control). Treatment with Primaquine causes a reduction in blood parasitaemias in the study population.3Immunoglobulin levels decreased in females from the HD group during the experimental period (10 days), while the levels increased in control females.4Only females in the HD group increased significantly their provisioning rates from the early to the late nestling stage. Total (male and female) provisioning rates increased significantly for the HD and LD groups, but not for the control group.5Nestlings reared by control females suffered a higher infestation by the ectoparasitic blowfly Protocalliphora azurea (Fallén).6Medication and the associated decrease in immunoglobulin levels allow females to allocate more resources towards parental effort. In addition, there is a potential link of medication with the health of the nestlings.7This study gives indirect support to the trade-off between reproductive effort and immune defence in avian hosts, and sheds light on the evolutionary significance of the link between parasitism, immunity, life-history decisions and fitness.Very few studies to date have evaluated experimentally the effects of blood parasites on physiological variables and breeding performance in wild birds. In this study, blood parasitaemias of female Blue Tits Cyanistes caeruleus L. were experimentally manipulated to assess subsequent changes in immunoglobulin level and parental effort during reproduction.At the beginning of the nestling period, female Blue Tits were medicated with a high dose (HD) or a low dose (LD) of the antimalarial Primaquine, or with saline solution (control). Treatment with Primaquine causes a reduction in blood parasitaemias in the study population.Immunoglobulin levels decreased in females from the HD group during the experimental period (10 days), while the levels increased in control females.Only females in the HD group increased significantly their provisioning rates from the early to the late nestling stage. Total (male and female) provisioning rates increased significantly for the HD and LD groups, but not for the control group.Nestlings reared by control females suffered a higher infestation by the ectoparasitic blowfly Protocalliphora azurea (Fallén).Medication and the associated decrease in immunoglobulin levels allow females to allocate more resources towards parental effort. In addition, there is a potential link of medication with the health of the nestlings.This study gives indirect support to the trade-off between reproductive effort and immune defence in avian hosts, and sheds light on the evolutionary significance of the link between parasitism, immunity, life-history decisions and fitness.

We present evidence of differential maternal allocation to eggs in response to manipulated male attractiveness in the migratory pied flycatcher (Ficedula hypoleuca). We manipulated the size of a male secondary sexual trait, the white forehead patch, right after male arrival to the breeding area and before female arrival. Patch size was (1) enlarged to the maximum observed in the population, (2) reduced by 40% or (3) kept constant by painting with indelible felt markers over the natural feather patch. Male behaviour was affected by the experimental manipulation, as individuals with enlarged patches performed more approaches to the nestbox in response to song playback during the territory occupation and nest-site presentation phases. Females paired with males with reduced forehead patches laid significantly smaller eggs than those paired with males in the control and enlarged-patch treatments. Laying date and clutch size did not differ among the experimental groups. We discuss that manipulations of ornaments designed to study differential allocation at laying should reduce as well as enlarge their expression.

1Although the ability to detect chemical cues is widespread in many organisms, it is surprising how little is known about the role of chemical communication in avian life histories. Nowadays, growing evidence suggests that birds can use olfaction in several contexts. However, we still do not know the role of bird olfaction in one of the most important determinants of survival, predator detection.2Blue tits, Cyanistes caeruleus L., were exposed to chemical cues of: (i) mustelid (predator), (ii) quail (odorous control); or (iii) water (odourless control) inside the nest-box where they were provisioning 8-day-old nestlings.3We show that blue tits were able to detect the chemical cues and showed antipredatory behaviours to cope with the risk of predation. Birds delayed their entry to the nest-box, and they perched on the hole of the nest-box and refused to enter more times when they found predator scent than control scents inside the nest-box. In addition, birds decreased the time spent inside the predator-scented nest-box when feeding nestlings.4The discovery of the ability of birds to use chemical cues of predators to accurately assess predation may help to understand many aspects of bird life histories that have been neglected until now.Although the ability to detect chemical cues is widespread in many organisms, it is surprising how little is known about the role of chemical communication in avian life histories. Nowadays, growing evidence suggests that birds can use olfaction in several contexts. However, we still do not know the role of bird olfaction in one of the most important determinants of survival, predator detection.Blue tits, Cyanistes caeruleus L., were exposed to chemical cues of: (i) mustelid (predator), (ii) quail (odorous control); or (iii) water (odourless control) inside the nest-box where they were provisioning 8-day-old nestlings.We show that blue tits were able to detect the chemical cues and showed antipredatory behaviours to cope with the risk of predation. Birds delayed their entry to the nest-box, and they perched on the hole of the nest-box and refused to enter more times when they found predator scent than control scents inside the nest-box. In addition, birds decreased the time spent inside the predator-scented nest-box when feeding nestlings.The discovery of the ability of birds to use chemical cues of predators to accurately assess predation may help to understand many aspects of bird life histories that have been neglected until now.

Helsinki 23 February 2005 © Finnish Zoological and Botanical Publishing Board 2005 ... Stress protein levels and blood parasite infection in blue ... Gustavo Tomás1*, Santiago Merino1, Javier Martínez1,2, Juan Moreno1 & Juan J. Sanz1 ... 1) Departamento de Ecología Evolutiva, ...

The signalling hypothesis of eggshell colouration in birds posits that females of species with blue-green eggs signal their phenotypic quality or the quality of their eggs to their mates through deposition of the antioxidant biliverdin as pigment. Males respond by investing more in the offspring. Through a cross-fostering experiment where we have exchanged whole clutches between pairs of pied flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca nests, we managed to break potential associations between female quality and clutch chromaticity. We show that males respond to incubated clutches with more variable and higher peak values in blue-green chroma through a higher proportional investment in nestling provisioning on day 4 of the nestling period, when males invest more heavily than females in provisioning. More variable clutches show higher peak chroma values. We also show that egg colour during the two-week incubation period has a significant effect, which is not found for the colour of eggs during the laying period. Finally, the proportion of male provisioning visits affects negatively female brooding effort and nestling mortality, and thereby has positive effects on female fitness. Blue-green chroma in the pied flycatcher functions as a signal of female or clutch quality to males which respond by adjusting their relative investment with respect to total pair effort.

Offspring body mass and hatching date have been proposed as useful correlates of post-fledging survival and recruitment probability in studies of avian populations. However, these links may be mediated by underlying physiological variables which are frequently not reported. One ...

We have aimed at detecting prelaying maternal effects on nestling antibody defences and growth through experimental food supplementation of female pied flycatchers Ficedula hypoleuca and subsequent exchange of whole clutches with control nests. The levels of immunoglobulins and the mass and size of chicks at 12 days of age were ascertained. This is the first study controlling for maternal incubation effects by exchanging eggs rather than nestlings. Our prediction is that the females’ availability of pre-laying nutritional resources affects offspring immune capacity and growth through maternal effects in the eggs when conditions during incubation and rearing are controlled for. Nestling immunoglobulin Y (IgY) levels and tarsus length were indeed positively associated with maternal food supplementation at laying. The only rearing environmental effect detected was that of mite infestation which affected both IgY levels and growth of nestlings. Nestlings that recruited to the population in the subsequent 2 years had higher IgY levels than those that did not. Maternal adaptations for allocating resources to eggs play an important role in moulding offspring phenotypes and may affect their survival prospects.

Compared to non-flying nest-dwelling ectoparasites, the biology of most species of flying ectoparasites and its potential impact on avian hosts is poorly known and rarely, if ever, reported. In this study we explore for the first time the factors that may affect biting midge (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) and black fly (Diptera: Simuliidae) abundances in the nest cavity of a bird, the hole-nesting blue tit Cyanistes caeruleus, and report their effects on adults and nestlings during reproduction. The abundance of biting midges was positively associated with nest mass, parental provisioning effort and abundance of blowflies and black flies, while negatively associated with nestling condition. Furthermore, a medication treatment to reduce blood parasitaemias in adult birds revealed that biting midges were more abundant in nests of females whose blood parasitaemias were experimentally reduced. This finding would be in accordance with these insect vectors attacking preferentially uninfected or less infected hosts to increase their own survival. The abundance of black flies in the population was lower than that of biting midges and increased in nests with later hatching dates. No significant effect of black fly abundance on adult or nestling condition was detected. Blood-sucking flying insects may impose specific, particular selection pressures on their hosts and more research is needed to better understand these host–parasite associations.

We explore the relationship between general eggshell colour (background and spots) and proportion of surface covered by spots on the eggs of blue tits Cyanistes caeruleus and several variables reflecting female health and condition. Females laying more spotted eggs showed a poorer body condition, higher cellular concentration of the stress protein HSP70 and marginally lower total immunoglobulin levels in blood. In addition, these females were paired with males with higher levels of HSP70 and lower concentrations of immunoglobulins. We interpret these results based on the properties of the eggshell pigment protoporphyrin, which is known as an inductor of oxidative stress in females. Although observational, this study presents, for the first time, clear evidence of eggshell spottiness and general colour as indicators of general condition and stress in avian populations.

ABSTRACT. The blood stress protein response can be used to evaluate physiological or environmental stress in individuals and populations. It is important that sample conservation and transport are correct to avoid con-founding effects on protein analyses. We show that Great Tit (Parus ...