The purpose of this article is to analyse how the definition of a new geological era affects museums. First, we will give an overview of the development of the concept of the Anthropocene and its connections with museums. One of the most... more
The purpose of this article is to analyse how the definition of a new
geological era affects museums. First, we will give an overview
of the development of the concept of the Anthropocene and its
connections with museums. One of the most obvious responses of
museums to the Anthropocene is the concept of sustainable or green museums.
It is a very extensive topic, of which we chose only one part,
specifically exhibitions, for analysis. As a case study, we took the If
Boxes Could Talk… exhibition in Tartu City History Museums, which
was completed as part of the Sustainable and Sustaining Exhibition
continuing education course at the Pallas University of Applied
Sciences. The exhibition explored, on the one hand, the application of
sustainability ideas in the preparation of a practical exhibition and,
on the other hand, the mechanisms of creating cultural sustainability
using the model of artificial cultures.
Anthropocene is a term that captures extremely important aspects
of the modern world. The central idea of the Anthropocene is the
inseparability of man as a biological being, nature, technology, and
culture. Man himself is both part of nature and a creator of culture,
a changer of nature, and a victim of technology. In fact, there is no
natural environment that has not been transformed by mankind,
either on Earth or even in near space. Sustainability and consideration
of the environment are deemed to be areas that ensure the seriousness
of museums in the 21st century. If we line up the most pressing
problems of the present time, we get quite a long list: climate change,
the price of energy, war in the middle of Europe, the recession, the
pandemic, and the rise of militant nationalism. Apparently, this
alarming list can be extended even further. The cluster crisis affects
different aspects of the environment and society and naturally also
affects museums, where sustainability is both a requirement and a
necessity.
Designing a sustainable world is, first of all, related to large-scale
cultural change. It is not news that a whole series of norms and
values characteristic of Western culture are such that they do not
fit into a sustainable world and are obviously the main obstacle to
the development of such a society. The expectation of continuous
economic growth, the desire for an increasingly better and more
abundant life, the expectation of continuous renewal, and the
glorification of success and competition are still the basic values of
our culture. To ensure sustainable development, changing people’s
values and behaviours, i.e., culture, is considered one of the key issues.
Changing culture is a difficult and confusing task, as culture tends
to be inert and rather difficult to change. People want to preserve
existing ideas, values, and traditions. Fortunately, the situation is not
completely hopeless. The solution is a completely different approach
to the whole bundle of problems. Instead of changing culture, we
have to create artificial cultures that meet our wants and needs. It is
a radically different solution to the task of culture change. Museums
have great potential to become leaders of cultural change. People trust
museums and consider them authoritative institutions. However,
how to start creating sustainable cultures is still open for the time
being. We started by telling stories. We used the concept of artificial
culture to describe purposeful cultural change. Artificial culture
offers a new conceptual approach to dealing with and practical
implementation of cultural change. Instead of changing the existing
culture, the focus is on creating a new culture. Artificial cultures
have great potential to solve sustainability problems, as they work
by changing people’s values and cultures, which are very often the
cause of the problems.
geological era affects museums. First, we will give an overview
of the development of the concept of the Anthropocene and its
connections with museums. One of the most obvious responses of
museums to the Anthropocene is the concept of sustainable or green museums.
It is a very extensive topic, of which we chose only one part,
specifically exhibitions, for analysis. As a case study, we took the If
Boxes Could Talk… exhibition in Tartu City History Museums, which
was completed as part of the Sustainable and Sustaining Exhibition
continuing education course at the Pallas University of Applied
Sciences. The exhibition explored, on the one hand, the application of
sustainability ideas in the preparation of a practical exhibition and,
on the other hand, the mechanisms of creating cultural sustainability
using the model of artificial cultures.
Anthropocene is a term that captures extremely important aspects
of the modern world. The central idea of the Anthropocene is the
inseparability of man as a biological being, nature, technology, and
culture. Man himself is both part of nature and a creator of culture,
a changer of nature, and a victim of technology. In fact, there is no
natural environment that has not been transformed by mankind,
either on Earth or even in near space. Sustainability and consideration
of the environment are deemed to be areas that ensure the seriousness
of museums in the 21st century. If we line up the most pressing
problems of the present time, we get quite a long list: climate change,
the price of energy, war in the middle of Europe, the recession, the
pandemic, and the rise of militant nationalism. Apparently, this
alarming list can be extended even further. The cluster crisis affects
different aspects of the environment and society and naturally also
affects museums, where sustainability is both a requirement and a
necessity.
Designing a sustainable world is, first of all, related to large-scale
cultural change. It is not news that a whole series of norms and
values characteristic of Western culture are such that they do not
fit into a sustainable world and are obviously the main obstacle to
the development of such a society. The expectation of continuous
economic growth, the desire for an increasingly better and more
abundant life, the expectation of continuous renewal, and the
glorification of success and competition are still the basic values of
our culture. To ensure sustainable development, changing people’s
values and behaviours, i.e., culture, is considered one of the key issues.
Changing culture is a difficult and confusing task, as culture tends
to be inert and rather difficult to change. People want to preserve
existing ideas, values, and traditions. Fortunately, the situation is not
completely hopeless. The solution is a completely different approach
to the whole bundle of problems. Instead of changing culture, we
have to create artificial cultures that meet our wants and needs. It is
a radically different solution to the task of culture change. Museums
have great potential to become leaders of cultural change. People trust
museums and consider them authoritative institutions. However,
how to start creating sustainable cultures is still open for the time
being. We started by telling stories. We used the concept of artificial
culture to describe purposeful cultural change. Artificial culture
offers a new conceptual approach to dealing with and practical
implementation of cultural change. Instead of changing the existing
culture, the focus is on creating a new culture. Artificial cultures
have great potential to solve sustainability problems, as they work
by changing people’s values and cultures, which are very often the
cause of the problems.
Research Interests:
Infoteooria ja küberneetika mõju teoreetilisele bioloogiale ongi kas instrumentaalne või siis üldist metafoorset raamistikku loov. Samas bioloogilise info mõiste kasutamine geenide ning rakkude ja organismide funktsioneerimise... more
Infoteooria ja küberneetika mõju teoreetilisele bioloogiale ongi kas
instrumentaalne või siis üldist metafoorset raamistikku loov. Samas
bioloogilise info mõiste kasutamine geenide ning rakkude ja organismide
funktsioneerimise kirjeldamisel võimaldab käsitleda kõiki
elunähtusi ühtses kontekstis. Läbi informatsioonilise konteksti saab
näidata, kuidas molekulid, rakud, organis ja organismid üksteist mõjutavad
ning koordineeritult toimivad.
Koos tehnoloogilise ja kultuurilise keskkonna muutumisega muutuvad
ka kasutatavad metafoorid. Kui 1830. aastatel hakati kasutama
sõna „pärilikkus“ bioloogiliste tunnuste kohta, siis nende pärandumise
kohta kasutati mõistet „edasi andma“ (passed down), täpselt samamoodi,
nagu käsitleti erinevat inimesi puudutavat pärandvara. Kui
kasutusele võeti elektriline side, oli üsna loomulik, et pärandumisel
toimus tunnuste edasikandumine või transmissioon (transmission).
Infoteooria ja arvutid tõid kasutusele informatsiooni ja koodi mõisted.
Lingvistikast võeti üle keele mõiste ja hakati rääkima „geneetilisest
keelest“, millest tulenesid omakorda loogiliselt ka sellised mõisted nagu
transkriptsioon (algses tähenduses ümberkirjutamine, ümberkirjutus)ja translatsioon (algses tähenduses tõlkimine). Nagu näha on pärandumisprotsessi
kirjeldamiseks kasutusele võetud lingvistikast ja infoteooriast
pärit mõisted, mida kasutataks metafoorselt ning mis kujundavad
selle, kuidas neid protsesse mõistetakse. Metafooride kasutamisel tuleb
arvestada seda, et ühelt poolt loovad need uusi võimalusi mingite nähtuste
kirjeldamiseks, kuid teisalt jällegi piiravad meie mõistelisi võimalusi
ja kättesaadavaid seletusviise.
Informatsiooni mõiste kasutuselevõtt geneetiliste protsesside kirjeldamisel
avas täiesti uue konteksti ja pakkus hulgaliselt uusi interpretatsioonivõimalusi.
Selle edukus oli silmnähtav, kuna neid metafoore
kasutatakse bioloogias valdavalt seniajani. Informatsiooniteooriaga
seotud terminite metafoorne kasutamine peegeldab seda, kuidas teadlased
nendest protsessidest mõtlevad. Infoteoreetilisel käsitlemisel
jäävad kõrvale nende protsesside tegelik füsikokeemiline olemus ning
esiplaanile tõuseb abstraktne representatsiooniline kirjeldus. Seega
on infoteooria kasutamisel bioloogiliste nähtuste kirjeldamisel väga
oluline arvestada nii kasutuseolevate metafooridega kui ka tegelike
infoprotsessidega elusorganismides. Ehk siis tuleb võtta arvesse nii
informatsiooni ontoloogilist kui ka epistemoloogilist rolli teoreetilises
bioloogias.
instrumentaalne või siis üldist metafoorset raamistikku loov. Samas
bioloogilise info mõiste kasutamine geenide ning rakkude ja organismide
funktsioneerimise kirjeldamisel võimaldab käsitleda kõiki
elunähtusi ühtses kontekstis. Läbi informatsioonilise konteksti saab
näidata, kuidas molekulid, rakud, organis ja organismid üksteist mõjutavad
ning koordineeritult toimivad.
Koos tehnoloogilise ja kultuurilise keskkonna muutumisega muutuvad
ka kasutatavad metafoorid. Kui 1830. aastatel hakati kasutama
sõna „pärilikkus“ bioloogiliste tunnuste kohta, siis nende pärandumise
kohta kasutati mõistet „edasi andma“ (passed down), täpselt samamoodi,
nagu käsitleti erinevat inimesi puudutavat pärandvara. Kui
kasutusele võeti elektriline side, oli üsna loomulik, et pärandumisel
toimus tunnuste edasikandumine või transmissioon (transmission).
Infoteooria ja arvutid tõid kasutusele informatsiooni ja koodi mõisted.
Lingvistikast võeti üle keele mõiste ja hakati rääkima „geneetilisest
keelest“, millest tulenesid omakorda loogiliselt ka sellised mõisted nagu
transkriptsioon (algses tähenduses ümberkirjutamine, ümberkirjutus)ja translatsioon (algses tähenduses tõlkimine). Nagu näha on pärandumisprotsessi
kirjeldamiseks kasutusele võetud lingvistikast ja infoteooriast
pärit mõisted, mida kasutataks metafoorselt ning mis kujundavad
selle, kuidas neid protsesse mõistetakse. Metafooride kasutamisel tuleb
arvestada seda, et ühelt poolt loovad need uusi võimalusi mingite nähtuste
kirjeldamiseks, kuid teisalt jällegi piiravad meie mõistelisi võimalusi
ja kättesaadavaid seletusviise.
Informatsiooni mõiste kasutuselevõtt geneetiliste protsesside kirjeldamisel
avas täiesti uue konteksti ja pakkus hulgaliselt uusi interpretatsioonivõimalusi.
Selle edukus oli silmnähtav, kuna neid metafoore
kasutatakse bioloogias valdavalt seniajani. Informatsiooniteooriaga
seotud terminite metafoorne kasutamine peegeldab seda, kuidas teadlased
nendest protsessidest mõtlevad. Infoteoreetilisel käsitlemisel
jäävad kõrvale nende protsesside tegelik füsikokeemiline olemus ning
esiplaanile tõuseb abstraktne representatsiooniline kirjeldus. Seega
on infoteooria kasutamisel bioloogiliste nähtuste kirjeldamisel väga
oluline arvestada nii kasutuseolevate metafooridega kui ka tegelike
infoprotsessidega elusorganismides. Ehk siis tuleb võtta arvesse nii
informatsiooni ontoloogilist kui ka epistemoloogilist rolli teoreetilises
bioloogias.
Research Interests:
Museums are memory institutions. They serve to collect, study, preserve and mediate to the public culturally valuable objects related to human beings and their living environment. They bolster the formation of social, communal and family... more
Museums are memory institutions. They serve to collect, study, preserve and mediate to the public culturally valuable objects related to human beings and their living environment. They bolster the formation of social, communal and family identities; they function as public memory institutions, supporting education and scientific research and, of course, museums provide entertainment and recreation. In this article, we look at museums from the perspective of heritage studies, and for our analysis, we use the following three dimensions: heritage objects, levels of society and processes of heritage management. Our objective is to present a conceptual framework which would highlight more clearly the connections between heritage and museums and which would lay a foundation for interlinking some theoretical concepts from heritage studies and museology and help to improve practical heritage management. Museums and heritage are closely, if not inextricably, linked. A museum’s connection wit...
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The primary task of museums is to preserve museum objects in the form of physical objects. Despite its apparent simplicity and comprehensibility, damage to man-made objects – artefacts – is a complex and complicated field. Damage... more
The primary task of museums is to preserve museum objects in the form of physical objects. Despite its apparent simplicity and comprehensibility, damage to man-made objects – artefacts – is a complex and complicated field. Damage processes are grouped as being physical, chemical, mechanical, and biological. In most cases, different processes work together, damaging the materials and structure of the artefacts. A number of factors, the most important of which are the composition and structure of materials, environmental conditions, and human impacts, affect damage processes. It is very difficult, and in most cases impossible, to take all these factors into account. At the same time, modelling the aging of museum objects is especially important for their successful preservation. Modelling of damage processes makes it possible to assess the extent of such processes (which objects have been damaged and what the degree of damage is), the speed of damage processes, and thereby changes in ...
Probleemide kuhjumine kultuurivarade kaitsel / Viiu Klement. Elektrooniliste infokandjate säilitamine / Kurmo Konsa.http://www.ester.ee/record=b4205103*es
The aim of this article is to present a critical discussion of the influence of technology on humans and culture in contemporary Western society. Transhumanism is a philosophical and social movement that believes that the essential... more
The aim of this article is to present a critical discussion of the influence of technology on humans and culture in contemporary Western society. Transhumanism is a philosophical and social movement that believes that the essential features of human life could be transformed and enhanced by applications of science and technology. In this article, I will compare transhumanist ideas about perfecting humans to the views of Roger Bacon, one of the representatives of European mediaeval alchemy. Such a treatment provides a historical background for transhumanist ideas and helps answer the moral and philosophical problems that humans are faced with due to modern technological development. Despite the fact that several transhumanist theoreticians treat it as a secular alternative to religious ideas, we can see that Christian eschatology plays a major role. Both in alchemy and transhumanism, scientific and theological aspects have been inseparably intertwined. Transhumanism can be seen as a ...
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In this article, I characterise the definitions of nature and culture by providing examples from nature conservation and conservation of cultural heritage. I also propose how to overcome the distinction of two definitions by using the... more
In this article, I characterise the definitions of nature and culture by providing examples from nature conservation and conservation of cultural heritage. I also propose how to overcome the distinction of two definitions by using the concept of common heritage. Overcoming the dilemma of nature and culture, at least in heritage management, does not mean developing more clever and ungrounded theoretical constructions but instead creating a practical combination of the two management systems that have been separate so far. Intertwined nature and culture have, therefore, created a whole new environment in which we need to cope as equal participants. Instead of one-sided relationships, either human activity harming nature or nature’s negative effects on humans (natural disasters, zoonotic diseases), we have to cope with a complicated dialogue that presumes both understanding and listening. The relationship between humans and nature, and its reflections and treatments in culture, has differed throughout history and culture. Nature, humans, and culture are constantly changing and developing, and these processes of change are happening concurrently, conditioning and creating each other.
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Medical alchemy emerged within the Western alchemical tradition in the 13th–14th centuries. However, well-established medical alchemy can be considered the iatrochemistry of the 16th century. In this article, I focus on the continuation... more
Medical alchemy emerged within the Western alchemical tradition in the 13th–14th centuries. However, well-established medical alchemy can be considered the iatrochemistry of the 16th century. In this article, I focus on the continuation of the alchemical tradition in the second half of the 19th century, using the electrohomeopathy created by Cesare Mattei as an example. Electrohomeopathy, also known as Mattei’s treatment of cancer or Matteism, is a form of homeopathy developed by Count Cesare Mattei (1809–1896) in the second half of the 19th century. Because the drugs invented by Mattei had such strength and rate of action that allowed them to be compared to electric current, he called the method electrohomeopathy. They had no other connection to electricity. It is important to emphasize this again, as later interpretations and explanations of electrohomeopathy link the effects of drugs to plant electricity or bioenergy (Odyle energy, organ energy, prana). Electrohomeopathy created ...
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The dichotomy of nature and culture has remained for various epoches, and various traditions one of the key ideological oppositions. Today we are living in an age when this distinction seems to be on the brink of extinction. The... more
The dichotomy of nature and culture has remained for various epoches, and various traditions one of the key ideological oppositions. Today we are living in an age when this distinction seems to be on the brink of extinction. The artificialisation means the ...
Research Interests:
Kurmo Konsa was born on the 31st of the August 1965 at Tartu, Estonia. He is an Associated Professor in Chair of Archival Studies at Tartu University. He has an M. Sc in microbiology from Tartu University, and an MA in Book Science from... more
Kurmo Konsa was born on the 31st of the August 1965 at Tartu, Estonia. He is an Associated Professor in Chair of Archival Studies at Tartu University. He has an M. Sc in microbiology from Tartu University, and an MA in Book Science from Tallinn University. Kurmo Konsa ...
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
He was born on the 31st of the August 1965 at Tartu, Estonia. He is an Associated Professor in Chair of Archival Studies at Tartu University. He has an M.Sc in microbiology from Tartu University, and an MA in Book Science from Tallinn... more
He was born on the 31st of the August 1965 at Tartu, Estonia. He is an Associated Professor in Chair of Archival Studies at Tartu University. He has an M.Sc in microbiology from Tartu University, and an MA in Book Science from Tallinn University. Kurmo Konsa holds a ...
Research Interests:
According to the simplest and most common definition, metadata refers to a set of data that describes other data. Research on metadata is focused almost exclusively on solving practical issues. There are few theories on metadata that... more
According to the simplest and most common definition, metadata refers to a set of data that describes other data. Research on metadata is focused almost exclusively on solving practical issues. There are few theories on metadata that emphasise the lack of a common theoretical foundation to handle metadata, and there is also a lack of corresponding research. This article looks at metadata from a broad perspective of information technology and seeks an answer to a question that may, at first glance, seem simple: what is the origin of metadata? The article aims to present a conceptual model that connects metadata to communication processes, thereby creating an opportunity to treat metadata in a more systematic manner. In memory institutions, different metadata schemes and standards are used to describe digital objects. In order to describe objects, libraries use bibliographical entries that correspond to valid entry and cataloguing rules. Objects are described by bibliographic entries ...
One of the most important materials available to us for building the future is the past. The future not only draws on the past, it is literally built out of the past. All this directly affects heritage as well – heritage is a technique... more
One of the most important materials available to us for building the future is the past. The future not only draws on the past, it is literally built out of the past. All this directly affects heritage as well – heritage is a technique that has to be used as effectively as possible for solving the local and global problems of contemporary and future societies. In this article, I describe the theoretical background of the heritage creation process and present two analytical tools that help to cast light on heritage identification processes. The first analytical possibility is to consider heritage creation processes based on different levels of society. Individual and community levels will be considered, along with local governments and the state, and finally all of mankind as well. Secondly, I differentiate object-centred, value-centred and human-centred approaches in creating heritage according to which aspects of heritage are at the centre of the process. I use the process of creat...
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Human societies reorganize both the surrounding environment and themselves. As a result, society is becoming more and more artificial. The driving force behind this process is constantly renewing technologies that are developed to... more
Human societies reorganize both the surrounding environment and themselves. As a result, society is becoming more and more artificial. The driving force behind this process is constantly renewing technologies that are developed to increase welfare. Technology has moved from the reorganization of the physical environment to man’s biological body, genome and consciousness. Transhumanist concepts concentrate on the biological and genetic amendment and improvement of the human being. By contrast, questions concerning culture have been insufficiently discussed. Culture, which greatly determines how to be a human being, is something very special to the human species, and appears to have been greatly undervalued in discussions of a possible posthuman future. Very obviously, culture is the factor that determines whether we will reach such a future and whether we will be able to use all the opportunities that it would offer to us. This study deals with culture from the viewpoint of artificia...
Preservation of objects that have social, scientific or cultural significance for the future has become one of the most challenging problems of the society. The establishment of preservation priorities is one of the most complicated tasks... more
Preservation of objects that have social, scientific or cultural significance for the future has become one of the most challenging problems of the society. The establishment of preservation priorities is one of the most complicated tasks facing the information institutions. The whole procedure entails a lot of responsibility as decisions that are made will determine the amount of information available to future generations. The article demonstrates experience and lessons gained in the project “Red Book of Estonian Publications, 1535–1850” that was conducted in 2003–2006. Growing out from the need to make decisions for preservation strategies and to establish principles for future digitization of Estonian book heritage, the project drew attention to the importance of having distinct methodology and coherent criteria for the assessment of culturally valuable objects. The project team stressed the importance of preservation quality, especially when using reformatting technologies like...
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The purpose of this article is to look at the ways in which heritage isapproached, based on the conceptual framework of critical inheritanceresearch. In case of approaches to inheritance, I distinguish betweenobject-based, value-based,... more
The purpose of this article is to look at the ways in which heritage isapproached, based on the conceptual framework of critical inheritanceresearch. In case of approaches to inheritance, I distinguish betweenobject-based, value-based, and people-centered approaches –depending on which aspects of the heritage are at the heart of theinheritance management process. I use different case studies fromthe Estonian context as examples. I am particularly interested in thechanges in heritage management in the time frame of the 1970s and1980s to the present day.In order to describe object-based heritage management, I willuse Kalvi Aluve’s book “The story about architectural monuments”(1983). It is a popular work targeted for the general public, which iswhy many of the views and concepts that are obviously used on adaily basis by those involved in the matter and have often becomean invisible part of the work culture, are explained in detail anddefined. Value-based inheritance management sets a...
Tallinn University, Institute of Information Studies25 Narva Road, 10120 Tallinn, EstoniaE-mail: tiiu.reimo@tlu.eeUniversity of Tartu, Institute of History and Archaeology3 Lossi str., 50090 Tartu, EstoniaE-mail:... more
Tallinn University, Institute of Information Studies25 Narva Road, 10120 Tallinn, EstoniaE-mail: tiiu.reimo@tlu.eeUniversity of Tartu, Institute of History and Archaeology3 Lossi str., 50090 Tartu, EstoniaE-mail: kurmo.konsa@ut.eeIšsaugoti ateities kartoms socialinę, mokslinę ir kultūrinę reikšmę turinčius objektus yra vienas iš svarbiausių visuomenės iššūkių. Šiandienos informacijos institucijoms iškyla vienas iš sudėtingiausių uždavinių – apibrėžti šių kultūros objektų išsaugojimo prioritetus. Ši procedūra labai atsakinga, nes padaryti sprendimai lems ateities kartoms reikiamos įsisavinti informacijos kiekį. Straipsnyje nagrinėjama patirtis ir pamokos, su kuriomis buvo susidurta 2003–2006 metais vykdant projektą „Estiškų leidinių Raudonoji knyga, 1535–1850“. Projekto metu iškilo būtinybė apibrėžti Estijos knygos paveldo išsaugojimo strategiją ir skaitmeninimo principus. Ypatingas dėmesys buvo kreipiamas į specialios metodikos sukūrimo ir kruopščiai apgalvotų kultūriškai verting...
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Heritage in its very diverse forms has become a significant force in contemporary society. This is manifested by the importance of heritage in shaping identities, the use of heritage by political forces, and the increasing... more
Heritage in its very diverse forms has become a significant force in contemporary society. This is manifested by the importance of heritage in shaping identities, the use of heritage by political forces, and the increasing interconnectedness of heritage, the entertainment business and tourism. Heritage is a part of tangible reality while at the same time being an intangible phenomenon. Heritage connects people to each other and to the environment, both its material and natural aspects, therefore forming part of our world. By relying on heritage, recreating it and attributing important meanings to it, people shape the way societies function. The aim of this article is to create a conceptual framework for treating the preservation of intangible cultural heritage. In order to do that, I will use the concept of heritage on the one hand and the information ecological approach on the other hand. The article proposes to create a clearer conceptual framework for treating intangible cultural...
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This article deals with culture from the viewpoint of artificialisation, and indicates some of the possibilities for creating artificial cultures. Human societies reorganize both the surrounding environment and themselves. As a result,... more
This article deals with culture from the viewpoint of artificialisation, and indicates some of the possibilities for creating artificial cultures. Human societies reorganize both the surrounding environment and themselves. As a result, society is becoming more and more artificial. The idea of ...
Research Interests:
The aim of this article is to present a critical discussion of the influence of technology on humans and culture in contemporary Western society. Transhumanism is a philosophical and social movement that believes that the essential... more
The aim of this article is to present a critical discussion of the influence of technology on humans and culture in contemporary Western society. Transhumanism is a philosophical and social movement that believes that the essential features of human life could be transformed and enhanced by applications of science and technology. In this article, I will compare transhumanist ideas about perfecting humans to the views of Roger Bacon, one of the representatives of European mediaeval alchemy. Such a treatment provides a historical background for transhumanist ideas and helps answer the moral and philosophical problems that humans are faced with due to modern technological development. Despite the fact that several transhumanist theoreticians treat it as a secular alternative to religious ideas, we can see that Christian eschatology plays a major role. Both in alchemy and transhumanism, scientific and theological aspects have been inseparably intertwined. Transhumanism can be seen as a continuation of the alchemical project in the twenty-first century. Modern science has added new tools to realise the goal of alchemical perfection. Transhumanism characterises very well the fact that the practices and theories of alchemy changed over time and adapted to changed contexts.
Research Interests:
The origin of metadata: a perspective on information theory According to the simplest and most common definition, metadata refers to a set of data that describes other data. Research on metadata is focused almost exclusively on solving... more
The origin of metadata: a perspective on information
theory
According to the simplest and most common definition, metadata refers
to a set of data that describes other data. Research on metadata is focused
almost exclusively on solving practical issues. There are few theories on
metadata that emphasise the lack of a common theoretical foundation to
handle metadata, and there is also a lack of corresponding research. This
article looks at metadata from a broad perspective of information technology
and seeks an answer to a question that may, at first glance, seem simple:
what is the origin of metadata? The article aims to present a conceptual
model that connects metadata to communication processes, thereby
creating an opportunity to treat metadata in a more systematic manner.
In memory institutions, different metadata schemes and standards are
used to describe digital objects. In order to describe objects, libraries use
bibliographical entries that correspond to valid entry and cataloguing rules.
Objects are described by bibliographic entries and catalogued in a bibliographic
format. Nowadays, cataloguing rules are mostly based on the ISBD
(International Standard Bibliographic Description). The most common bibliographic
formats are standards belonging to the MARC (Machine Readable
Cataloguing) group. Some libraries, such as the Academic Library of
Tallinn University and the University of Tartu Library use the Dublin Core
metadata standard to describe the digital objects they preserve. A particular
feature of the metadata systems used by libraries is that all objects in a
collection are described to at least a minimum level. Archives in Estonia
use the General International Standard Archival Description (ISAD(G)),
which was developed by the International Council on Archives. Archives
differ from libraries in that archives usually describe objects in detail on
the levels of archive, series, and archive item, and preservation of the full
context of information is prioritised. Estonian museums began introducing
common structured metadata in 1992, when the Ministry of Culture
commissioned a software company called AS GenNet Laboratories to
develop KVIS (Information System of Cultural Values). The development
of KVIS was based on the CIDOC (International Committee for Documentation)
data model of the International Council of Museums, and on
SWETERM, the Swedish standard of forming name attributes. This was
an object-oriented data model, and the description was focused not on the
object but the event. This type of description model is also supported by
the CRM (Conceptual Reference Model) adopted by CIDOC in 2006. In
2005, the Ministry of Culture decided to create MuIS, a new information
system for museums, although this new system was based on the same
underlying data model as the previous system. The descriptions of museum objects are supported by central glossaries that ensure museum items are
described as required and that searches can be made across museums. To
describe natural scientific collections, other information systems are also
used, such as the SARV database, used for managing data related to geocollections.
Archaeological collections have their own databases as well,
with specific metadata. The digital collection of the Art Museum of Estonia
uses a bespoke system of metadata.
Metadata are connected to each of the elements in the communication
process: metadata are the attributes describing these elements. Each element
of a communication act is characterised by specific, fixed attributes
that provide full information about the act. All the attributes of the set of
elements pertaining to a specific communication act make up the full meta
description of this communication act. In fact, a communication act can
be characterised by various attributes. The selection of metadata attributes
used to characterise a communication process is connected to the function
of the metadata relevant for the particular case.
theory
According to the simplest and most common definition, metadata refers
to a set of data that describes other data. Research on metadata is focused
almost exclusively on solving practical issues. There are few theories on
metadata that emphasise the lack of a common theoretical foundation to
handle metadata, and there is also a lack of corresponding research. This
article looks at metadata from a broad perspective of information technology
and seeks an answer to a question that may, at first glance, seem simple:
what is the origin of metadata? The article aims to present a conceptual
model that connects metadata to communication processes, thereby
creating an opportunity to treat metadata in a more systematic manner.
In memory institutions, different metadata schemes and standards are
used to describe digital objects. In order to describe objects, libraries use
bibliographical entries that correspond to valid entry and cataloguing rules.
Objects are described by bibliographic entries and catalogued in a bibliographic
format. Nowadays, cataloguing rules are mostly based on the ISBD
(International Standard Bibliographic Description). The most common bibliographic
formats are standards belonging to the MARC (Machine Readable
Cataloguing) group. Some libraries, such as the Academic Library of
Tallinn University and the University of Tartu Library use the Dublin Core
metadata standard to describe the digital objects they preserve. A particular
feature of the metadata systems used by libraries is that all objects in a
collection are described to at least a minimum level. Archives in Estonia
use the General International Standard Archival Description (ISAD(G)),
which was developed by the International Council on Archives. Archives
differ from libraries in that archives usually describe objects in detail on
the levels of archive, series, and archive item, and preservation of the full
context of information is prioritised. Estonian museums began introducing
common structured metadata in 1992, when the Ministry of Culture
commissioned a software company called AS GenNet Laboratories to
develop KVIS (Information System of Cultural Values). The development
of KVIS was based on the CIDOC (International Committee for Documentation)
data model of the International Council of Museums, and on
SWETERM, the Swedish standard of forming name attributes. This was
an object-oriented data model, and the description was focused not on the
object but the event. This type of description model is also supported by
the CRM (Conceptual Reference Model) adopted by CIDOC in 2006. In
2005, the Ministry of Culture decided to create MuIS, a new information
system for museums, although this new system was based on the same
underlying data model as the previous system. The descriptions of museum objects are supported by central glossaries that ensure museum items are
described as required and that searches can be made across museums. To
describe natural scientific collections, other information systems are also
used, such as the SARV database, used for managing data related to geocollections.
Archaeological collections have their own databases as well,
with specific metadata. The digital collection of the Art Museum of Estonia
uses a bespoke system of metadata.
Metadata are connected to each of the elements in the communication
process: metadata are the attributes describing these elements. Each element
of a communication act is characterised by specific, fixed attributes
that provide full information about the act. All the attributes of the set of
elements pertaining to a specific communication act make up the full meta
description of this communication act. In fact, a communication act can
be characterised by various attributes. The selection of metadata attributes
used to characterise a communication process is connected to the function
of the metadata relevant for the particular case.
Research Interests:
Medical alchemy emerged within the Western alchemical tradition in the 13th–14th centuries. However, well-established medical alchemy can be considered the iatrochemistry of the 16th century. In this article, I focus on the continuation... more
Medical alchemy emerged within the Western alchemical tradition in the 13th–14th centuries. However, well-established medical alchemy can be considered the iatrochemistry of the 16th century. In this article, I focus on the continuation of the alchemical tradition in the second half of the 19th century, using the electrohomeopathy created by Cesare
Mattei as an example. Electrohomeopathy, also known as Mattei’s treatment of cancer or Matteism, is a form of homeopathy developed by Count Cesare Mattei (1809–1896) in the second half of the 19th century.
Because the drugs invented by Mattei had such strength and rate of action that allowed them to be compared to electric current, he called the method electrohomeopathy. They had no other connection to electricity. It is important to emphasize this again, as later interpretations and explanations of electrohomeopathy link the effects of drugs to plant electricity or bioenergy (Odyle energy, organ energy, prana). Electrohomeopathy created by Mattei is based on homeopathy, but he thought it was in need of further development. In his electrohomoeopathy he saw a great reformation of
homoeopathy. Mattei acknowledged Hahnemann’s similarity principle while criticizing his doctrine because it used, as he said, only remedies that were not combined and only addressed the symptoms. Like complex homoeopaths he thought that the use of single
remedies was a mistake that held back the development of homoeopathy. Mattei relied on both homeopathy and an earlier alchemical tradition in creating the treatment system.
At the same time, he took over the ideas of contemporary science and integrated them into his treatment system. Electrohomeopathy is a further development of iatrochemistry, clearly based on the science of its time, and has nothing mystical or occult in it.
Electrohomeopathy is very well characterized by the fact that alchemical practices and theories changed over time and adapted to changed contexts. According to its developer, this is an empirical treatment system, which says that the first step is to test the effects
of drugs and to establish a theory on that basis. Modern electrohomeopathy is characterized by an abundance of drugs used and the introduction of mystical explanations.
Mattei as an example. Electrohomeopathy, also known as Mattei’s treatment of cancer or Matteism, is a form of homeopathy developed by Count Cesare Mattei (1809–1896) in the second half of the 19th century.
Because the drugs invented by Mattei had such strength and rate of action that allowed them to be compared to electric current, he called the method electrohomeopathy. They had no other connection to electricity. It is important to emphasize this again, as later interpretations and explanations of electrohomeopathy link the effects of drugs to plant electricity or bioenergy (Odyle energy, organ energy, prana). Electrohomeopathy created by Mattei is based on homeopathy, but he thought it was in need of further development. In his electrohomoeopathy he saw a great reformation of
homoeopathy. Mattei acknowledged Hahnemann’s similarity principle while criticizing his doctrine because it used, as he said, only remedies that were not combined and only addressed the symptoms. Like complex homoeopaths he thought that the use of single
remedies was a mistake that held back the development of homoeopathy. Mattei relied on both homeopathy and an earlier alchemical tradition in creating the treatment system.
At the same time, he took over the ideas of contemporary science and integrated them into his treatment system. Electrohomeopathy is a further development of iatrochemistry, clearly based on the science of its time, and has nothing mystical or occult in it.
Electrohomeopathy is very well characterized by the fact that alchemical practices and theories changed over time and adapted to changed contexts. According to its developer, this is an empirical treatment system, which says that the first step is to test the effects
of drugs and to establish a theory on that basis. Modern electrohomeopathy is characterized by an abundance of drugs used and the introduction of mystical explanations.
Research Interests:
Toward the end of the 19th century, several different national bureaucratic institutions and private enterprises had evolved and expanded to such an extent that new information management tools and methods were necessary. The... more
Toward the end of the 19th century, several different national bureaucratic
institutions and private enterprises had evolved and expanded to such an
extent that new information management tools and methods were necessary.
The electromechanical data-processing system developed by Hermann Hollerith in the 1880s, which operated on the basis of punch cards, can be
regarded as the predecessor of modern automatic digital data-processing
systems. Information storage and data processing systems were accomplished
through punch cards, i.e. carton cards in a standardised form.
Information was punched onto the cards by perforating in fixed positions.
Hollerith invented a number of electromechanical devices that could punch
information on cards and process the cards that were carrying information.
The sorter machine made it possible to sort cards by the perforated marker
in a column, and the tabulator enabled counting and adding up cards.
This article treats the development of punch card-based systems by
demonstrating the primary modifications and correlating them with the
purposes of such systems. In order to do this, I will divide the punch cardbased
systems into five generations. The system was created in the United
States in the 1880s to process large volumes of statistical data that had been
recorded in population censuses. Several countries applied this system in
everyday practice up until the beginning of the 20th century. In 1894, information
systems capable of processing statistical data evolved out of this
development. These systems were still in use even after the end of World
War II. Solutions that facilitated bookkeeping were developed by 1906;
such systems served until the 1960s, in some places even longer. Population
registers based on punch cards were elaborated between 1935 and 1937, and
were used by various countries until the 1960s. Upon the introduction of
electronic computers after World War II, punch cards were used to enter
data and programs into the computers.
Punch card-based systems were the first automatic systems that were
able to process large quantities of data. They were the most complex information
systems from the end of the 19th century until the end of World
War II, offering the most multifarious options. After the introduction of
electronic computers, the application of such systems was consistently
scaled back, but they were still widely in use until the mid-20th century.
The experience and technical knowledge gained while applying punch
card-based information systems laid the groundwork for further digital
developments in computer systems. As both of these systems were used
in parallel over a considerably long period of time, knowledge was shared between them. To represent data units on punch cards, data had to be encoded. This shared knowledge resulted in significant gains in the processing of information, specifically the division of data into discrete, distinctly specified units to mechanically process information, and the representation of data units on punch cards via encoding.The codes of the early punch card-based systems were case based, and
had been elaborated according to the data to be analysed, and to the purposes
of processing. Further developments made these encoding systems
more universal, so that they came to be used as standards. Punch cards
were the first data carriers that could be read by machines. Corresponding
devices were employed to punch, read and process information on
cards. The initial versions of these systems were easily read by the naked
eye, but later the systems evolved to become completely number based.
The constant increase in the amount of data recorded on the cards was the
result of more complex tasks, as well as the growing abundance of calculation
options on the tabulators themselves. Programming with changeable
setups, which characterised the first generations of programming,
was followed by conditional programming with punch cards themselves.
Increased processing speed was one of the milestones in the development
of punch card-based systems. The systems were characterised by a vast
universality. Data, once recorded on the cards, was available for repeated
analysis, regardless of the objective. Punch cards were the first databases
that could be processed automatically. Nonetheless, operating mechanical
information systems required a firmer organisation and standardisation
of the working process.
institutions and private enterprises had evolved and expanded to such an
extent that new information management tools and methods were necessary.
The electromechanical data-processing system developed by Hermann Hollerith in the 1880s, which operated on the basis of punch cards, can be
regarded as the predecessor of modern automatic digital data-processing
systems. Information storage and data processing systems were accomplished
through punch cards, i.e. carton cards in a standardised form.
Information was punched onto the cards by perforating in fixed positions.
Hollerith invented a number of electromechanical devices that could punch
information on cards and process the cards that were carrying information.
The sorter machine made it possible to sort cards by the perforated marker
in a column, and the tabulator enabled counting and adding up cards.
This article treats the development of punch card-based systems by
demonstrating the primary modifications and correlating them with the
purposes of such systems. In order to do this, I will divide the punch cardbased
systems into five generations. The system was created in the United
States in the 1880s to process large volumes of statistical data that had been
recorded in population censuses. Several countries applied this system in
everyday practice up until the beginning of the 20th century. In 1894, information
systems capable of processing statistical data evolved out of this
development. These systems were still in use even after the end of World
War II. Solutions that facilitated bookkeeping were developed by 1906;
such systems served until the 1960s, in some places even longer. Population
registers based on punch cards were elaborated between 1935 and 1937, and
were used by various countries until the 1960s. Upon the introduction of
electronic computers after World War II, punch cards were used to enter
data and programs into the computers.
Punch card-based systems were the first automatic systems that were
able to process large quantities of data. They were the most complex information
systems from the end of the 19th century until the end of World
War II, offering the most multifarious options. After the introduction of
electronic computers, the application of such systems was consistently
scaled back, but they were still widely in use until the mid-20th century.
The experience and technical knowledge gained while applying punch
card-based information systems laid the groundwork for further digital
developments in computer systems. As both of these systems were used
in parallel over a considerably long period of time, knowledge was shared between them. To represent data units on punch cards, data had to be encoded. This shared knowledge resulted in significant gains in the processing of information, specifically the division of data into discrete, distinctly specified units to mechanically process information, and the representation of data units on punch cards via encoding.The codes of the early punch card-based systems were case based, and
had been elaborated according to the data to be analysed, and to the purposes
of processing. Further developments made these encoding systems
more universal, so that they came to be used as standards. Punch cards
were the first data carriers that could be read by machines. Corresponding
devices were employed to punch, read and process information on
cards. The initial versions of these systems were easily read by the naked
eye, but later the systems evolved to become completely number based.
The constant increase in the amount of data recorded on the cards was the
result of more complex tasks, as well as the growing abundance of calculation
options on the tabulators themselves. Programming with changeable
setups, which characterised the first generations of programming,
was followed by conditional programming with punch cards themselves.
Increased processing speed was one of the milestones in the development
of punch card-based systems. The systems were characterised by a vast
universality. Data, once recorded on the cards, was available for repeated
analysis, regardless of the objective. Punch cards were the first databases
that could be processed automatically. Nonetheless, operating mechanical
information systems required a firmer organisation and standardisation
of the working process.
Research Interests:
The purpose of this article is to look at the ways in which heritage is approached, based on the conceptual framework of critical inheritance research. In case of approaches to inheritance, I distinguish between object-based, value-based,... more
The purpose of this article is to look at the ways in which heritage is
approached, based on the conceptual framework of critical inheritance
research. In case of approaches to inheritance, I distinguish between
object-based, value-based, and people-centered approaches –
depending on which aspects of the heritage are at the heart of the
inheritance management process. I use different case studies from
the Estonian context as examples. I am particularly interested in the
changes in heritage management in the time frame of the 1970s and
1980s to the present day.
approached, based on the conceptual framework of critical inheritance
research. In case of approaches to inheritance, I distinguish between
object-based, value-based, and people-centered approaches –
depending on which aspects of the heritage are at the heart of the
inheritance management process. I use different case studies from
the Estonian context as examples. I am particularly interested in the
changes in heritage management in the time frame of the 1970s and
1980s to the present day.
Research Interests:
One of the most important materials available to us for building the future is the past. The future not only draws on the past, it is literally built out of the past. All this directly affects heritage as well – heritage is a technique... more
One of the most important materials available to us for building the future is the past. The future not only draws on the past, it is literally built out of the past. All this directly affects heritage as well – heritage is a technique that has to be used as effectively as possible for solving the local and global problems of contemporary and future societies.
In this article, I describe the theoretical background of the heritage creation process and present two analytical tools that help to cast light on heritage identification processes. The first analytical possibility is to consider heritage creation processes based on different levels of society. Individual and community levels will be considered, along with local governments and the state, and finally all of mankind as well. Secondly, I differentiate object-centred, value-centred and human-centred approaches in creating heritage according to which aspects of heritage are at the centre of the process. I use the process of creating natural and cultural heritage as examples primarily in the Estonian context.
The management of nature conservation and cultural heritage are two very significant fields of activity where the world is discursively divided into certain definite parts and managed according to this division. The views of both courses of action concerning heritage are rather different due to different professional backgrounds. The basis for heritage management is the clear definition of the values of heritage. All objects and phenomena are not equally valuable and it is impossible to manage them all. The fact that people ascribe heritage values to both natural and cultural objects does not mean that heritage is an arbitrarily constructed phenomenon that we can treat however we like.
Alongside values, the next important aspect in managing heritage that has to be taken into consideration is the materiality of heritage. Heritage of any description always exists in material form. This is obvious in the case of natural objects and material cultural heritage, but intellectual and spiritual cultural heritage also implies at least the existence of people. The materiality of heritage means that heritage is always associated with other material objects, forming actor networks, to use Bruno Latour’s terminology from his so-called actor-network theory. Just as living beings are engaged in ecological systems, maintaining their own self-existence even without mankind, so are buildings, for instance, similarly connected to both human and natural actors.
The preservation of natural or cultural heritage will not succeed without the active enterprise of man. Thereat, the central idea is not solely the preservation of physical material or the gene pool from the past, but also the management of changes. Managing changes means that it is impossible for us to preserve objects, phenomena and nature in such a way that it would be isolated from the physical and social environment. Yet since the environment is constantly changing, the adaptation of heritage management to those changes is necessary. Taking changes into consideration requires recognition of the historicity of heritage, and this also applies to natural objects and environments.
In this article, I describe the theoretical background of the heritage creation process and present two analytical tools that help to cast light on heritage identification processes. The first analytical possibility is to consider heritage creation processes based on different levels of society. Individual and community levels will be considered, along with local governments and the state, and finally all of mankind as well. Secondly, I differentiate object-centred, value-centred and human-centred approaches in creating heritage according to which aspects of heritage are at the centre of the process. I use the process of creating natural and cultural heritage as examples primarily in the Estonian context.
The management of nature conservation and cultural heritage are two very significant fields of activity where the world is discursively divided into certain definite parts and managed according to this division. The views of both courses of action concerning heritage are rather different due to different professional backgrounds. The basis for heritage management is the clear definition of the values of heritage. All objects and phenomena are not equally valuable and it is impossible to manage them all. The fact that people ascribe heritage values to both natural and cultural objects does not mean that heritage is an arbitrarily constructed phenomenon that we can treat however we like.
Alongside values, the next important aspect in managing heritage that has to be taken into consideration is the materiality of heritage. Heritage of any description always exists in material form. This is obvious in the case of natural objects and material cultural heritage, but intellectual and spiritual cultural heritage also implies at least the existence of people. The materiality of heritage means that heritage is always associated with other material objects, forming actor networks, to use Bruno Latour’s terminology from his so-called actor-network theory. Just as living beings are engaged in ecological systems, maintaining their own self-existence even without mankind, so are buildings, for instance, similarly connected to both human and natural actors.
The preservation of natural or cultural heritage will not succeed without the active enterprise of man. Thereat, the central idea is not solely the preservation of physical material or the gene pool from the past, but also the management of changes. Managing changes means that it is impossible for us to preserve objects, phenomena and nature in such a way that it would be isolated from the physical and social environment. Yet since the environment is constantly changing, the adaptation of heritage management to those changes is necessary. Taking changes into consideration requires recognition of the historicity of heritage, and this also applies to natural objects and environments.
Research Interests:
As human beings, we simultaneously live in a physically existing environment and the cultural image of the same environment. On the one hand, we have direct physical contact with the environment; on the other hand, it is also mediated and... more
As human beings, we simultaneously live in a physically existing environment and the cultural image of the same environment. On the one hand, we have direct physical contact with the environment; on the other hand, it is also mediated and cultural. Our existence in the world is one of the cornerstones of our humanity. What combine in the world are both the actual environment that is the foundation of our existence and the discourse that people have constructed of it. Time and space are the two main categories of the physical existence of humans, but not only that: treatments of time and space make up one of the most significant parts of the deep structure of culture. We ourselves are positioned in time and space, and the background to all of our thoughts and feelings is also time and space. Preservation is the maintenance of meanings and values. Upon attempting to connect meanings and values to time and space, it seems that meanings tend to be more spatial and values more temporal. Meanings are related to space; in another word, the environment. According to biosemioticians, the emergence of meaning is related to the emergence of life. Before life emerged on planet Earth, there were no meanings present; these slowly started to
Research Interests:
The object of this paper is to introduce a new approach for ranking risksin museums through the analytic hierarchy process (AHP). The AHP provides a flexible and easily understood way to rank disaster risks in museums. It is a... more
The object of this paper is to introduce a new approach for ranking risksin museums through the analytic hierarchy process (AHP). The AHP provides a flexible and easily understood way to rank disaster risks in museums. It is a multi-criteria decision supporting methodology that allows subjective as well as objective factors to be considered in the process, which is precisely what is needed. AHP involves the principles of decomposition, pairwise comparisons, and priority vector generation and synthesis. Though the purpose of AHP is to capture the stackholders' judgements about the situation in a museum, this approach also improves the stakeholders' satisfaction through improved transparency in the ranking process and their increasing awareness of and participation in the process. One of the main advantages of this method is the relative ease with which it handles multiple criteria. In addition to this, AHP is easier to understand and it can effectively handle both qualitative and quantitative data. AHP will be discussed in more depth with the example of the risks rating of the Tartu City Museum's (TCM) disaster plan.
Research Interests:
In this article, I characterise the definitions of nature and culture by providing examples from nature conservation and conservation of cultural heritage. I also propose how to overcome the distinction of two definitions by using the... more
In this article, I characterise the definitions of nature and culture by providing examples from nature
conservation and conservation of cultural heritage. I also propose how to overcome the distinction of two definitions by
using the concept of common heritage. Overcoming the dilemma of nature and culture, at least in heritage management,
does not mean developing more clever and ungrounded theoretical constructions but instead creating a practical
combination of the two management systems that have been separate so far. Intertwined nature and culture have,
therefore, created a whole new environment in which we need to cope as equal participants. Instead of one-sided
relationships, either human activity harming nature or nature’s negative effects on humans (natural disasters, zoonotic
diseases), we have to cope with a complicated dialogue that presumes both understanding and listening. The relationship
between humans and nature, and its reflections and treatments in culture, has differed throughout history and culture.
Nature, humans, and culture are constantly changing and developing, and these processes of change are happening
concurrently, conditioning and creating each other.
conservation and conservation of cultural heritage. I also propose how to overcome the distinction of two definitions by
using the concept of common heritage. Overcoming the dilemma of nature and culture, at least in heritage management,
does not mean developing more clever and ungrounded theoretical constructions but instead creating a practical
combination of the two management systems that have been separate so far. Intertwined nature and culture have,
therefore, created a whole new environment in which we need to cope as equal participants. Instead of one-sided
relationships, either human activity harming nature or nature’s negative effects on humans (natural disasters, zoonotic
diseases), we have to cope with a complicated dialogue that presumes both understanding and listening. The relationship
between humans and nature, and its reflections and treatments in culture, has differed throughout history and culture.
Nature, humans, and culture are constantly changing and developing, and these processes of change are happening
concurrently, conditioning and creating each other.
Research Interests:
... igas séiilitusiiksuses toimunud ja toimuvate kahjustusprotsesside iseloomu ja ulatuse kind1aks1n§iiirarnist.6 Uurimise muudavad keeru-kaks jéirgmised ... iildarvu jagamisel valimisse vajaliku objektide arvuga valikuintervall x. 7... more
... igas séiilitusiiksuses toimunud ja toimuvate kahjustusprotsesside iseloomu ja ulatuse kind1aks1n§iiirarnist.6 Uurimise muudavad keeru-kaks jéirgmised ... iildarvu jagamisel valimisse vajaliku objektide arvuga valikuintervall x. 7 Calmes, A., Schofer, R., Eberhardt, K. Theory and ...
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Ülevaade digitaalse teabe säilitamisest.